A Directory of Wetlands in the Middle East

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IRAQ

INTRODUCTION

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Area: 434,924 sq.km.

Population: 18,920,000 (1990).

Iraq is uniquely positioned at the heart of the Middle East, between latitudes 2927' and 3723' North and longitudes 3842' and 4823' East. It is bounded by Iran in the east, Turkey in the north, Syria in the northwest, Jordan and Saudi Arabia in the west and southwest, and Kuwait and the Gulf in the south. The country's greatest axis, running in a north-northwest to south-southeast direction from the Turkish border to the shores of the Gulf, is almost 1,000 km.

Iraq is traversed by two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, both of which rise in the eastern mountains of Turkey and enter Iraq along its northwestern borders. After flowing for some 1,200 km through Iraq, these two rivers converge at Karmat Al, just north of Basrah, to form the tidal Shatt Al Arab waterway, which flows some 110 km to enter the Gulf. The Euphrates does not receive any tributaries within Iraq, while the Tigris receives four main tributaries, the Khabour, Great Zab, Little Zab and Diyala, which rise in the mountains of eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran and flow in a southwesterly direction until they meet the Tigris River. A seasonal river, Al Authaim, rising in the highlands of northern Iraq also flows into the Tigris, and is the only significant tributary arising entirely within Iraq.

Topographically, Iraq is made up of four main regions that differ slightly in climate, topography and soil. These are as follows:

Iraq has two marked seasons, a dry and intensely hot summer and a relatively cold, wet winter, with spring and autumn as short transitional periods between the two. The climate is of a typical semi-arid continental type, chiefly characterized by wide diurnal and annual ranges in temperature. The maximum recorded temperature is 50C, while temperatures of 45C are not unusual occurrences in June, July and August. The minimum recorded temperature is -11C. The diurnal range of temperature often exceeds 15-20C, with daily temperatures generally ranging between 20 and 40C in summer, and between 5 and 15C in winter. The relative humidity is usually very low, especially in summer. The average annual rainfall ranges from about 100 mm in the south to 300 mm on the upper plains and 1,000 mm in the mountains, but there are wide variations between years.

Summary of Wetland Situation

The wetlands in the middle and lower basin of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Iraq were, until recently at least, much the most extensive wetland ecosystems in the Middle East. In their lower courses, these two great rivers have created a vast network of wetlands, the Mesopotamian Marshes, covering about 15,000 sq km. These wetlands comprise a complex of inter-connected shallow freshwater lakes, marshes and seasonally inundated floodplains extending from the region of Basrah in the east to within 150 km of Baghdad in the west. Winter rains in the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates in southern Turkey, Syria and northern Iraq cause extensive flooding throughout Mesopotamia and fill up the lake systems in the south. Water levels reach their maximum in early spring and then fall by as much as two metres during the hot dry summer. Much the largest wetlands within this complex are: (a) the Haur Al Hammar and its associated marshes (350,000 ha) south of the Euphrates; (b) the Central Marshes (300,000 ha), a vast complex of permanent lakes and marshes north of the Euphrates and west of the Tigris; and (c) Haur Al Hawizeh and its associated marshes (220,000 ha) extending east from the Tigris into neighbouring Iran. These wetlands eventually drain southeastwards into the Gulf via the Shatt Al Arab waterway. Iraq's very limited coastal zone consists mainly of inter-tidal mudflats backed by bare silt flats, often with an intervening narrow strip of date gardens. The most extensive mudflats occur in a huge tidal basin, Khawr Al Zubair, near the border with Kuwait, and along the north shore of Khawr Abdallah west to the region of Fao at the mouth of the Shatt Al Arab.

In central and northern Iraq, most of the natural freshwater lakes and marshes have long since been drained for agricultural purposes, although significant remnants still survive in the Haweija (Huweija) Marshes in the Little Zab Valley and around Baquba in the Diyala Valley. The valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates themselves have been extensively modified for agricultural purposes. Most of the original riverine forest which once lined the banks of these two rivers has been replaced by orchards and other cultivated land, although some significant stands of forest still exist, especially on small islands. In its undisturbed state, this forest forms dense stands of poplar (mainly Populus euphratica) and tamarisk (Tamarix spp.), with an understorey of species such at the Barbary Boxthorn. The surviving patches of forest provide important breeding habitat for a wide variety of birds, notably regional specialities such as the Grey Hypocolius Hypocolius ampelinus, Iraq Babbler Turdoides altirostris and Dead Sea Sparrow Passer moabiticus, and are used as staging areas by large numbers of migratory passerines during the migration seasons. Other important natural wetlands in central Iraq include two large brackish to saline lakes, Shari Lake to the east of the Tigris north of Samarra, and Haur Al Shubaicha on the plains to the east of the Tigris southeast of Baghdad. A smaller saline lake, Sawa Lake, in the desert about 25 km west of Samawa, is of interest because of its unusual physico-chemical properties. This lake is apparently fed by underground seepage from as far north as Razazah, and has no surface outlet.

All of the other large wetlands in central and northern Iraq are either man-made water storage reservoirs or wetlands which have been extensively modified by man for flood relief or agricultural purposes. Established reservoirs known to be of importance for wildlife include Samarra Lake on the Tigris and Hindiya Barrage on the Euphrates. Several huge dams have been constructed on the major rivers in recent years, while others are still under construction. These include Haditha Dam on the Euphrates, Aski Mosul (Great Saddam) Dam on the Tigris, Dukan Dam on the Little Zab River, Darbandikhan Dam on the Diyala River, and a new dam on the seasonal Al Authaim River. (Work on a proposed dam on the Great Zab River at Bakhma has stopped, and the project has apparently been abandoned). Nothing is known of the importance of these new reservoirs for wildlife, although it is likely that they are, or will become, important staging areas for migratory waterfowl and will eventually support substantial fisheries.

In the region of Baghdad in central Iraq, three large saline depressions have been converted into huge water storage basins for flood relief. Lake Tharthar, situated between the Tigris and the Euphrates northwest of Baghdad, receives floodwaters from the Tigris, while Lake Habbaniya and Lake Razazah (Bahr Al Milh), to the west and southwest of Baghdad, are fed by the Euphrates. All three of these lakes support major fisheries and are of considerable importance for migratory waterfowl. Other significant wetlands in this region include large areas of semi-arid plains and irrigated arable land subject to winter flooding, notably the Attariya Plains east of Baghdad, the Al Musayyib area near the Euphrates south of Baghdad, and Haur Ibn Najim between the Tigris and the Euphrates southeast of Hilla.

Throughout Iraq, the level of exploitation of wetlands is high. The economy of many of the peoples living in the region has been intimately involved with wetlands for at least 6,000 years. Civilization was well established in Mesopotamia by the 4th millennium BC, and a sophisticated irrigation system developed at that time. Floodplain wetlands, river banks and lake shores are utilized for the cultivation of cereals, rice or vegetables, while the rivers and lakes themselves support intensive freshwater fisheries. In the vast reed-beds of Mesopotamia, marsh-dwelling communities are almost totally dependent on reeds for their construction needs. Large numbers of domestic livestock, particularly water buffalo, are allowed to graze on wetland vegetation, and aquatic plants are harvested to provide fodder during the winter months. Waterfowl hunting occurs commonly at wetlands throughout Iraq, and in Mesopotamia, large numbers of waterfowl are harvested on a commercial basis, providing a livelihood for hundreds of people (Alnoori, 1976; vant Leven, 1968).

Various authors have attempted to provide lists of the principal wetlands of Iraq. Savage (1968) compiled a preliminary list of wetlands of special importance for wildfowl (ducks, geese, swans and coots), and identified 27 wetlands in Iraq as being appropriate for inclusion in a proposed MAR List for Asia and the Middle East. Georg and Savage (1970b) provided a revised version of this list, and reported on the status of the sites. Carp (1980), reviewing all information available up to 1979, produced a list of 19 wetlands in Iraq which could be considered to be of international importance on the basis of the Ramsar criteria. This list was further revised by Scott and Carp (1982), who provided a list of all the wetlands in Iraq which were known or thought to have been of some importance for waterfowl (a total of 32 sites). Finally, Scott (1993) included a total of 33 Iraqi wetlands in his provisional list of wetlands of international importance in the Middle East. In a recent inventory of globally and regionally important sites for the conservation of birds in the Middle East, BirdLife International identified 42 sites in Iraq as being "Important Bird Areas" (Evans, 1994). All but eight of these sites were primarily wetland areas.

Much the most serious threat to wetlands in Iraq has been the drainage of wetlands and diversion of water supplies for agricultural purposes and, apparently also in recent years, for military reasons. Dam-building on the Euphrates in Turkey and Syria and the increasing utilization of the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates for irrigation in upper and middle Iraq have greatly reduced the extent of seasonal flooding in the wetlands of lower Iraq, and facilitated drainage of large areas for cultivation and the exploitation of oil resources. Within the last few years, major hydrological engineering activities in and around the wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia have resulted in the drying out of vast areas of wetland in the Central Marshes and Haur Al Hammar, and could eventually lead to the disappearance of these systems. The Iraqi Government has said that the reason for the recent hydrological engineering works is to increase agricultural production. However, several international analyses have argued that, whatever the agricultural benefits, the primary purpose is to control dissidents taking refuge in the marshes. The Marsh Arabs, or Ma'dan, who have existed in the marshes for at least 5,000 years, have been particularly affected by these actions.

No measures have been taken by the Iraqi government to conserve the wetland ecosystems or their fauna and flora, and, in general, the government gives low priority to nature conservation. The few conservation laws issued by the government (e.g. restrictions on hunting and fishing) exist on paper only and have never been implemented or enforced. The destruction of the wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia continues at an accelerating pace, and their continued survival as one of the finest and most extensive natural wetland ecosystems in western Eurasia is now in grave doubt.

Wetland Research

A considerable amount of research has been carried out on the wetlands of Iraq, especially in the Mesopotamian Marshes. Researchers from the Iraq Biological Research Centre in Baghdad and the Museum of Natural History at the University of Basrah have been studying the limnology, ecology and aquatic fauna of the wetlands of Mesopotamia since the 1960s, and have published their results in the journals of these two institutions. The Biological Research Centre was established in 1965 and was joined by other scientific centres to form the Iraqi Research Council in the late 1970s; however, the Centre was closed down in 1989. Researchers from the University of Basrah (Department of Biology, Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, and Marine Research Centre) have also carried out work on various aspects of the ecology of the marshes, but most of this has been written up as M.Sc. theses, and relatively little has been published in the scientific literature. Some of the principal studies have included the following:

In northern Iraq, the Department of Biology at the University of Mosul has conducted research on invertebrates in rivers and canals, and is currently carrying out hydrological studies at Aski Mosul Reservoir, while the Department of Biology at the University of Salahdinn has carried out limnological studies at Dukan Reservoir.

The Biological Research Centre carried out some research on freshwater crustaceans and fish in Central Iraq. The Centre's Department of Zoology and Aquatic Biology worked on fish ecology and heavy metal contamination of some native fish, water chemistry of the Tigris and Diyala rivers, the invertebrate fauna of the Diyala River and zooplankton. Other work of this Department included the ecology of small mammals and their control, mosquito control and bird ecology. Most of this work was published in the journal of the Iraqi Research Council, "Journal of Biological Sciences Research", which was terminated when the Biological Research Centre closed down in 1989.

There appears to have been rather little research on the native fish fauna of Iraq, other than basic inventories of species (e.g. Allouse, 1955b; Khalaf, 1962; Mahdi, 1962; Banister, 1980). The available Information on the fish fauna of the Tigris and Euphrates basin has recently been summarized by Banister (1994). Some fisheries research has been carried out by the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences and the Marine Research Centre at the University of Basrah, the Iraq Biological Research Centre, the Zafaraniya Fisheries Research Centre (now incorporated within the Ministry of Agriculture), and the Biological Research Centre within the Iraq Atomic Commission. However, most of the results of this research have been published in local journals, and little information is available in the international literature. Similarly, little information is available on the amphibians and reptiles of Iraq, and these are considered to be the least well known of the vertebrate groups. Some basic collecting has been carried out and check-lists of species are available (e.g. Schmidt, 1939; Allouse, 1955a; Khalaf, 1959). The Biological Research Centre collected and studied reptiles, and published a monograph on the Gekoniidae of Iraq, but few other studies have been undertaken, and the status, distribution and habits of most species are poorly known.

The mammals, on the other hand, are relatively well known. The Euphrates Expedition of 1835-1837 published the first annotated list of mammals in the Mesopotamian region (Ainsworth, 1838; Chesney, 1850), but with little accompanying detail on localities and on whether specimens were taken. Further annotated lists of mammals in Iraq, based on personal experience, were published by Metaxas (1891) and Kinnear (1916). The Hofmuseum of Vienna sent an expedition to Mesopotamia in 1910, which published many papers on the biological results, including one on bats (von Wettstein, 1913). The Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force of 1915-1919 was encouraged to keep records of mammals, and these were subsequently compiled and published by Cheesman (1920) and Pitman (1922). In the accounts of their extensive journeys through the Mesopotamian Marshes, Thesiger (1954 & 1964) and Maxwell (1957) made numerous references to the mammals which they encountered in the marshes, but gave few specific details. Hatt (1959) collected extensively in many parts of Iraq, including the Mesopotamian lowlands, during 1952-1953, and Harrison (1956a & 1956b) collected in the vicinity of Shu'aiba near Basrah. More recently, mammalogists at the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad and Museum of Natural History at the University of Basrah have conducted investigations on small mammals in the Mesopotamian Marshes, and have described a new species of bandicoot rat (Erythronesokia bunnii) for science (Khajuria, 1980). The Biological Research Centre has also collected mammals, and published an up-dated list of the mammals of Iraq in the late 1970s. Information available on the mammals of Iraq has recently been summarized by Harrison and Bates (1991).

Much the most extensive data on the fauna of Mesopotamia relate to the birds. Ticehurst et al. (1921-22) summarized the extensive ornithological investigations and collections made by a number of British military personnel stationed in Mesopotamia during the First World War. Their publication still constitutes the most comprehensive review of the avifauna of Mesopotamia and provides an extremely valuable historical perspective. Moore and Boswell (1956-57) made extensive ornithological investigations in southern Iraq between 1941 and 1945, and provided a detailed account of their observations along with many observations of other workers in Iraq in the 1940s. Chapman and McGeoch (1956) also made some field observations of birds in southern Iraq between August 1952 and August 1954, and provided useful information on bird migration through the Basrah area. Thesiger (1964) and Maxwell (1957) made numerous references to the huge concentrations of wintering waterfowl, and recorded several interesting species, but gave few details of their observations and no quantitative information. Marchant (1961, 1962, 1963a, 1963b & 1963c) and Macnab (Marchant & Macnab, 1963) made extensive observations of birds in central Iraq between 1959 and 1962, and visited the Basrah region on several occasions. Savage (1968) counted wildfowl at several wetlands in Mesopotamia in 1966 and 1967, and reviewed the status of Anatidae and Fulica atra in Iraq at that time. Georg and Savage (1970a) also summarized the status of Anatidae in Iraq, along with that of Phoenicopterus ruber and Fulica atra, while Alnoori (1976) provided general information on the country's waterfowl.

In recognition of the extreme importance of the wetlands of Iraq for wintering waterfowl, the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) sponsored four mid-winter waterfowl surveys in Iraq in 1967/68, 1972, 1975 and 1979, respectively. These surveys, which were carried out jointly with the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad and the Museum of Natural History in Basrah, attempted to survey wetlands throughout Iraq and obtain an estimate of the numbers of waterfowl utilizing them in mid-winter (Georg & Vielliard, 1968 & 1970; Koning & Dijksen, 1973; Carp, 1975a & 1975b; Carp & Scott 1979; Scott & Carp, 1982). These surveys provided the best information hitherto available on the wintering avifauna of Iraq's wetlands, and indicated that the total wintering population of waterfowl in Iraq in the late 1960s and 1970s was in the region of several million birds. The 1979 survey covered only a fraction of Iraq's wetlands, and yet recorded over 475,000 waterfowl of 81 species.

No major ornithological surveys have been carried out in the wetlands of Iraq since these four mid-winter waterfowl surveys, and very little information on waterfowl numbers has become available since then. Some waterfowl counts were made at a number of localities around the Haur Al Hammar in autumn 1979 (Ctyroky, 1987), and the bird fauna of three wetlands in Central Iraq was studied in 1988 and 1989 (Al-Dabbagh, in press). Anatidae were counted at several wetlands in the Basrah area in 1993 and 1994, and waterfowl hunting was also investigated in this region (Al-Robaae, in press). Elsewhere in the Middle East, much of the recent information on the ornithological importance of wetlands has been derived from the Asian Waterfowl Census - a programme of annual mid-winter waterfowl censuses initiated in January 1987 and coordinated by IWRB. Unfortunately, Iraq is one of the few countries in the Middle East which has not as yet participated in this Census.

A recent environmental and ecological study of the marshlands of Mesopotamia, coordinated by the Wetland Ecosystems Research Group at the University of Exeter, U.K., has summarized available information on the faunal, floral, ecological, economic and cultural values of the wetlands, and has examined the changes which have taken place and are likely to take place in the wetlands as a result of engineering and other developments in the Tigris/Euphrates basin. The study attempts to assess the environmental impact of past, ongoing and proposed developments on the system, and makes a number of recommendations for the conservation of remaining wetland habitats and restoration of degraded areas (Maltby, 1994).

Wetland Area Legislation

No special measures had been taken by the Iraqi Government to conserve wetlands. There is no national conservation strategy in Iraq, and no legal protection has been given to any part of the wetlands. Legislation has been introduced to prohibit fishing during the spawning season, but no serious steps have been taken to implement this, and the seasonal prohibition on fishing is widely disregarded. The environment wildlife law of 1981 is presumed to legislate for wildlife preserves including those in existence before that date (IUCN, 1992). However, in the late 1970s, the Government introduced legislation banning all hunting in Iraq in order to conserve wildlife, particularly terrestrial game which had been heavily persecuted in the past. Nevertheless, it was clear in 1979 that these laws were being widely disregarded, at least in the case of duck-netting which was observed at many localities in the wetlands (Carp & Scott, 1979). These and later hunting restrictions have not been implemented or enforced, and sport-hunting is now organized by the Government through a "Hunting Club" (K.Y. Al-Dabbagh, in litt.).

At international level, Iraq is a contracting party to the World Heritage Convention, but has not designated any natural World Heritage Sites. It is also party to the Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, and to the Action Plan for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and Coastal Areas. There is a National Committee of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme, but no Biosphere Reserves have been established. Iraq is not a contracting party to the Ramsar, Bonn or Biodiversity Conventions.

Wetland Area Administration

Responsibility for management of the natural environment lies with the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, but no major conservation plans have been developed or implemented, and no protected areas have been established at wetlands. In 1977, the precursor of the General Directorate of Horticulture and Forestry in the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation became responsible for wildlife protection, and established two small protected areas for the captive breeding of gazelles (Gazella sp.), one near Baghdad and the other at Rutba near the Jordanian border. In 1994, both of these were reported to be practically closed down. There are many "National Parks" in Iraq, but these are mainly state-owned areas for public recreation, with no specific management for wildlife.

Organizations involved with Wetlands

Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation

Biological Research Centre, Iraqi Atomic Commission

University of Baghdad

University of Basrah

University of Mosul

University of Salahdinn (formerly Sulaiymania)

Iraq Biological Research Centre

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WETLANDS

The site descriptions have been compiled from the published literature, the results of IWRB waterfowl surveys in Iraq between 1967 and 1979, an unpublished report on the wildlife of the Mesopotamian marshlands prepared for the Wetlands Ecosystems Research Group, University of Exeter, in 1993 (Scott & Evans, 1993), and information provided by Khalid Al-Dabbagh. All 33 of the internationally important wetlands described in this inventory have been identified as "Important Bird Areas" by BirdLife International, and are described in Evans (1994).

The great bulk of the information available on the fauna, flora and ecology of the wetlands of Iraq was obtained prior to the onset of the Iran/Iraq war in 1980, when large areas of wetland, especially in Mesopotamia, remained more or less intact. Dam-building activities on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in recent years, both within Iraq and upstream in Turkey and Syria, are known to have resulted in the loss of much of the former wetland habitat, while major hydrological engineering works in Lower Mesopotamia within the last few years have caused, and continue to destroy wetlands on a massive scale. Almost no first-hand information is available on the impact of these developments on the ecology or wildlife of the wetlands, but it seems certain that many, if not most, of the sites described in this inventory have already been drastically reduced in size and will disappear completely in the near future. For this reason, the present inventory should be viewed more as an historical account of the wetlands of Iraq than as a review of the current status of the wetlands.

Haweija Marshes (1)

Location: 3515'N, 4355'E; in the valley of the Little Zab River, about 50 km west-southwest of Kirkuk, Al Ta'mim Governorate.

Area: Unknown.

Altitude: c.170 m.

Physical and ecological features: The Haweija (or Huweija) Marshes are a complex of marshes and lakes on the plains to the southeast of the Little Zab River, a tributary of the Tigris. Wheat is cultivated in surrounding areas.

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. The wetland has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: None known.

Land use: No information.

Disturbances and threats: No recent information is available. It is likely, however, that much of the wetland has now been drained for agriculture.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: Haweija Marshes are reported to have been an important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl. Marchant and Macnab (1962) recorded a wide variety of ducks, shorebirds and other waterfowl, mostly in small numbers, on passage and in winter, including Botaurus stellaris and Marmaronetta angustirostris. They also recorded up to 2,000 Anser albifrons and 75-100 Himantopus himantopus on passage. Savage (1968) states that Anas crecca wintered in "thousands", and that Phoenicopterus ruber and Anas strepera occurred on passage. Vanellus indicus and V. leucurus are said to be common breeding species.

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: None known.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Evans (1994); Marchant & Macnab (1962); Savage (1968).

Reasons for inclusion: 1a, 3b & 3c. One of the few significant natural freshwater wetlands in central Iraq, known to have been an important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl, especially Anser albifrons.

Source: See references.

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Tharthar Lake (2)

Location: 3340'-3430'N, 4300'-4340'E; on the plains between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, about 100 km northwest of Baghdad, Salah Al Din Governorate. Approximate centre at 3355'N, 4315'E.

Area: c.230,000 ha.

Altitude: c.100 m.

Overview: A large natural depression and former salt lake in the Al Jezira desert between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, now used for flood relief and water storage for irrigation purposes.

Physical and ecological features: Tharthar Lake was formerly a vast salt lake in a shallow depression between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. In recent decades, the basin has been used to store flood waters from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, and now contains a deep, oligotrophic brackish lake some 100 km long and up to 35 km wide. Initially, the lake was used to store floodwaters from the Tigris River, which entered via an inlet canal from the Samarra Dam, but in 1975 a canal was constructed to the lake from Felluja on the Euphrates. An outlet canal feeds water back into the Tigris River, and a branch from this canal reaches south to feed into the Euphrates as well. The maximum depth in the late 1960s, before the lake had completely filled, was 44 m. As the salinity of the lake has fallen, emergent aquatic vegetation has become established along parts of the shoreline, and there are now some reed-beds in the littoral zone and in shallow regions of the lake. The lake is surrounded by semi-desertic plains and low hills with a sparse vegetation of small shrubs (Haloxylon salicornicum, Achillea fragrantissima, Artemisia herb-alba and Rhanterium epaposum) and scattered Ziziphus trees. In spring, most of the area is covered with a thin layer of grasses and annuals.

The climate is generally hot and dry for most of the year. The average annual rainfall is about 150 mm, most of the rain falling during December, January and February. The mean annual temperature is about 20C, and the temperature range from a minimum of 5C in January to a maximum of 45C in July and August (Al-Dabbagh, in press).

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. The lake was listed as a wetland of international importance by Carp (1980). The northeastern portion of the lake and a large area of adjacent desert (Mahzam) have been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: Al-Dabbagh (in press) considered that the eastern shore of Tharthar Lake and an adjacent strip of semi-desert about 20 km wide would be suitable for conservation purposes.

Land use: Flood relief and storage of water for irrigation. There is a considerable amount of fishing in the lake and some waterfowl hunting occurs. Much of the surrounding desert is used for irrigated agriculture, but a strip of land about 20 km wide on the northern and eastern sides of the lake is unsuitable for agriculture and is relatively undisturbed.

Disturbances and threats: Overfishing is reported to be a problem in the lake (Evans, 1994).

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: Huge numbers of waterfowl were reported to winter in the area in the 1960s, particularly Anas platyrhynchos, A. crecca, A. penelope, A. acuta, A. clypeata and Fulica atra (Savage, 1968; Georg & Savage, 1970b). Waterfowl counts in the 1970s found rather few birds, and it was supposed that the lake had lost much of its importance for waterfowl since the water storage and relief functions were enlarged some years earlier (Carp, 1980). About 4,000 waterfowl were recorded during a partial survey in December 1972, including about 900 ducks of seven species, over 2,000 Fulica atra, 23 Grus grus, 560 Larus ridibundus and 70 L. cachinnans, along with small numbers of Podiceps cristatus, P. nigricollis, Phalacrocorax carbo and several species of shorebirds (Koning & Dijksen, 1973). However, Al-Dabbagh (in press) observed very large numbers of waterfowl at the north end of the lake in 1988 and 1989, including up to 10,000 Anas platyrhynchos, 10,000 Aythya ferina and 10,000 Fulica atra, along with smaller numbers of Phalacrocorax pygmaeus (maximum 10), Anas strepera (100), Marmaronetta angustirostris (2), Aythya nyroca (10), A. fuligula (400), Charadrius alexandrinus (100), Calidris minuta (100), Larus genei (100) Gelochelidon nilotica (10) and Sterna albifrons (40). Breeding birds in 1988/89 included Charadrius alexandrinus, Vanellus indicus and V. leucurus, while passage migrants included up to 20 Charadrius asiaticus. The Black-bellied Sandgrouse Pterocles orientalis and Pin-tailed Sandgrouse P. alchata are common in the surrounding semi-desert, and come to drink at the lake in large numbers. The Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata was still breeding in the area as recently as 1988/89 (Al-Dabbagh, in press).

Mammals known to have occurred in the area include Wolf Canis lupus, Jackal C. aureus, Striped Hyaena Hyaena hyaena and Goitred Gazelle Gazella subgutturosa. Common reptiles include the agamids Agama agilis and A. ruderata, the lacertids Acanthodactylus boskianus and A. grandis, and several snakes of the genus Coluber. The globally threatened Desert Monitor Varanus griseus is present in fairly good numbers in the semi-desert to the east of the lake, and the rare viper Pseudocerastes fieldii has been collected on the shore of the lake (K.Y. Al-Dabbagh, in litt.).

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: Mid-winter waterfowl surveys were undertaken in 1972 and 1975 by the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) in collaboration with the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad and the Museum of Natural History in Basrah. Al-Dabbagh (in press) studied the bird fauna of the northern part of the lake and adjacent desert between February 1988 and October 1989.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Al-Dabbagh (in press); Carp (1975a, 1975b, 1980); Evans (1994); Georg & Savage (1970b); Koning & Dijksen (1973); Savage (1968).

Reasons for inclusion: 3a & 3c. An extremely important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl.

Source: See references.

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Samarra Lake (3)

Location: 3415'N, 4350'E; on the Tigris River at Samarra, 100 km north-northwest of Baghdad, Salah Al Din Governorate.

Area: c.20,000 ha.

Altitude: c.70 m.

Physical and ecological features: A small water storage reservoir, about 25 km long and up to eight km wide, created by a dam on the Tigris River. Soils are mostly alluvial, and in some parts hills reach the river forming cliffs. Elsewhere, the river banks are gravel. There is a large area of marsh extending for about five km, with beds of Phragmites and Typha and a rich growth of submerged aquatic vegetation, especially where the water depth is about 1.5 m. Riverine forest dominated by Populus euphratica occurs in patches along the banks and more especially on small islands. Old gravel pits in the adjacent river bed are now filled with water and surrounded by a thick growth of Populus and Tamarix. Adjacent areas of the Tigris valley have been largely converted to orchards and open agricultural fields.

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. The wetland has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: None known.

Land use: Water storage for irrigation and flood diversion. Parts of the river bank are used for gravel extraction. There is some grazing of lakeside vegetation by sheep and cattle. Much of the surrounding area is cultivated, mainly with date palms, wheat fields, orchards and some vegetables.

Disturbances and threats: Duck-hunting is common away from the dam, and there is a possibility of the extension of agriculture and of mineral extraction (Evans, 1994).

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: The lake has assumed considerable importance as a breeding, staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl. Al-Dabbagh (in press) recorded 146 species of birds in the area between February 1988 and October 1989, including 61 species of waterfowl. Breeding birds included Tachybaptus ruficollis (20 pairs), Nycticorax nycticorax (20 pairs), Francolinus francolinus (common), Gallinula chloropus (common), Porphyrio porphyrio (20 birds), Glareola pratincola (50 pairs), Vanellus indicus (20 pairs), V. leucurus (50 pairs), Sterna albifrons (40 birds), Ceryle rudis and Halcyon smyrnensis. Possible breeding species included Phalacrocorax pygmaeus, Egretta garzetta, Ardea cinerea, A. purpurea, Marmaronetta angustirostris, Circus aeruginosus, Fulica atra, Sterna hirundo and S. albifrons. Tadorna ferruginea has bred in the area in the past. The riverine thickets support large breeding populations of Hypocolius ampelinus (50 pairs), Turdoides altirostris and Passer moabiticus. The reservoir regularly supports over 20,000 waterfowl in winter, including up to 200 Anas strepera, 5,000 A. platyrhynchos, 1,300 A. acuta, 300 A. clypeata, 10,000 Aythya ferina, 250 A. fuligula, 15,000 Fulica atra, 50 Himantopus himantopus, 60 Tringa nebularia, 60 Larus genei and 100 L. ridibundus. Species recorded in smaller numbers include Podiceps nigricollis (maximum 10), Phalacrocorax pygmaeus (maximum 14), Botaurus stellaris, Ardeola ralloides (maximum 20), Egretta garzetta (maximum 40), Ardea cinerea (maximum 20), A. purpurea (maximum 10), Anser anser (maximum 105), Marmaronetta angustirostris (maximum 6) and Aythya nyroca (maximum 25). Haliaeetus albicilla bred on the cliffs by the river in the 1960s, but none could be found in this area in 1988/89, despite extensive searches. Up to 20 Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus have been recorded in the area in winter. The Jackal Canis aureus and the Small Indian Mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus occur in the area. The river and lake hold endemic cyprinid fish.

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: A mid-winter waterfowl survey was undertaken in 1972 by the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) in collaboration with the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad. Al-Dabbagh (in press) studied the bird fauna of the lake between February 1988 and October 1989.

Management authority and jurisdiction: The lake has been reported to be under the control of one important government official for private use (Evans, 1994).

References: Al-Dabbagh (in press); Evans (1994); Koning & Dijksen (1973).

Reasons for inclusion: 2a, 2d, 3a & 3c. An important breeding, staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl. Several globally threatened species of birds have occurred, and endemic cyprinid fish are present.

Source: Khalid Y. Al-Dabbagh and references.

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Shari Lake (4)

Location: 3422'N, 4408'E; on the plains to the east of the Tigris River, 30 km northeast of Samarra, Salah Al Din Governorate.

Area: 5,000-8,000 ha.

Altitude: c.100 m.

Physical and ecological features: A large, natural, shallow, saline lake on the desertic plains about 30 km east of the Tigris River. The lake varies greatly in size depending on local rainfall and floodwaters from the Hemrin Hills and Al-Authaim River. At full extent, the lake is about 27 km long (from north to south) and up to 7 km wide, but large portions dry out during the summer months. There are some small reed-beds of Phragmites where fresh water enters the lake. The semi-desertic plains to the west of the lake are sparsely vegetated with grasses and low shrubs; extensive sand dunes occur to the east.

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. The wetland has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: Al-Dabbagh (in press) considered that Shari Lake would be a suitable site for a conservation area.

Land use: There is commercial salt extraction at the lake. Sheep graze around the lake, especially in spring when extra stock are brought in.

Disturbances and threats: No information.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: The lake is an important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl. Al-Dabbagh (in press) recorded 34 species of waterfowl at the lake between February 1988 and October 1989, including up to 6 Phalacrocorax pygmaeus, 50 Phoenicopterus ruber, 20 Anser albifrons, 200 Anas platyrhynchos, 2 Marmaronetta angustirostris, 200 Aythya ferina, 200 A. fuligula, 500 Fulica atra, 40 Charadrius alexandrinus, 60 C. asiaticus, 40 Calidris minuta, 20 Gelochelidon nilotica and 20 Sterna albifrons. Breeding birds in 1988/89 included Vanellus indicus (20 pairs), V. leucurus (10 pairs), Charadrius alexandrinus (5 pairs) and Gelochelidon nilotica (4 pairs); Himantopus himantopus may have bred. The Wolf Canis lupus and Jackal C. aureus have been recorded in the area. Common reptiles include the agamids Agama agilis and A. ruderata, the lacertids Acanthodactylus boskianus and A. grandis, and several snakes of the genus Coluber. The globally threatened Desert Monitor Varanus griseus occurs in the surrounding desert.

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: Al-Dabbagh (in press) studied the bird fauna of the lake and surrounding desert between February 1988 and October 1989.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Al-Dabbagh (in press); Evans (1994); Georg & Savage (1970b).

Reasons for inclusion: 1a & 3b. A good example of a natural, brackish to saline lake in central Iraq; an important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl.

Source: See references.

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Baquba Wetlands (5)

Location: 3355'N, 4450'E; in the Diyala Valley about 10-20 km north-northeast of Baquba and 70 km north-northeast of Baghdad, Diyala Governorate.

Area: c.2,000 ha.

Altitude: c.50 m.

Overview: The remnants of a once extensive complex of freshwater lakes and marshes in the Diyala Valley, formerly of considerable importance for passage and wintering waterfowl, but largely drained for agriculture in the early 1970s. The current status of the wetlands is unknown.

Physical and ecological features: The wetlands in the Baquba area formerly comprised a complex of at least six shallow, freshwater lakes with extensive marshes covering an area of at least 2,000 ha in the valley of the Diyala River, a tributary of the Tigris. The principal wetlands were Haur Abu Abbas (3350'N, 4445'E), Haur Shaikh Sayed (3351'N, 4446'E) and four lakes totalling about 1,000 ha (Abdul Warid, Al Abara, Al Ahmar and Al Ugur) south of the village of Mugdadiya (3400'N, 4455'E). The lakes were fed partly by rain water and partly by the Mahrut River, a branch of the Diyala River. The lakes supported extensive marshes and some dense reed-beds. Mudflats were exposed at low water levels. Areas adjacent to the four northern lakes were under cultivation, with cotton, corn, palm groves and orchards. The lakes were still in excellent condition until the late 1960s, but by the end of 1972, only Abu Abbas (500-1,000 ha) remained more or less intact. Haur Shaikh Sayed had been reduced to a few ha of open water surrounded by agricultural land, and Abdul Warid, Al Abara, Al Ahmar and Al Ugur had been completely drained for agriculture (Koning & Dijksen, 1973).

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. The wetlands in the Baquba area were listed as a wetland in international importance by Carp (1980), and have been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: None known.

Land use: The lakes were formerly used as a supply of water for irrigation during the summer months. Waterfowl market hunting occurred in winter.

Disturbances and threats: When they visited the lakes in December 1972, Koning and Dijksen (1973) found that the four lakes near Mugdadiya (Abul Warid, Al Abara, Al Ahmar and Al Ugur) had been drained and converted into agricultural land since the previous IWRB survey in January 1968. At that time, these lakes had held at least 27,500 ducks and 11,000 Fulica atra (Georg & Vielliard, 1970). Similarly, Haur Shaikh Sayed had been almost completely drained for agriculture. At the one remaining lake, Haur Abu Abbas, duck-hunting was occurring on a large scale, the birds being netted at night and sold in markets in Baghdad.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: Formerly an extremely important wintering area for migratory waterfowl, notably dabbling ducks, Aythya ferina and Fulica atra, and identified by Atkinson-Willes (1976) as being of international importance for wintering Anas acuta and A. clypeata. Over 24,000 ducks of ten species were present on lakes Al Abara and Al Ahmar in January 1967, and over 39,000 waterfowl were recorded on four of the lakes in January 1968. Peak counts in the 1960s included 70 Tachybaptus ruficollis, 16 Casmerodius albus, 570 Ciconia ciconia, 255 Plegadis falcinellus, 20 Platalea leucorodia, 50 Anser anser, 30 Tadorna tadorna, 5,000 Anas platyrhynchos, 14,000 A. crecca, 6,000 A. strepera, 5,000 A. penelope, 5,000 A. acuta, 8,650 A. clypeata, 1,500 Aythya ferina, 100 A. nyroca, 11,000 Fulica atra, 80 Himantopus himantopus, 70 Vanellus indicus, 56 V. leucurus, 150 Charadrius alexandrinus and 40 Chlidonias hybridus. About 180 Marmaronetta angustirostris were found wintering at Haur Al Ahmar in January 1968 (Georg & Vielliard, 1970); this is one of the few areas in Iraq where this threatened species has been found in winter. A party of seven Cygnus columbianus was present in December 1966 (Georg & Savage, 1970b). Wintering birds of prey included Aquila clanga, A. nipalensis, Circus aeruginosus (maximum 17) and C. macrourus. Anas querquedula was reported to be common on passage, and Porphyrio porphyrio probably bred in the area. However, by 1972 the lakes had lost most of their importance for waterfowl; only 4,850 waterfowl of 18 species were recorded in December 1972, mostly at Haur Abu Abbas.

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: Mid-winter waterfowl surveys were undertaken in 1968 and 1972 by the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) in collaboration with the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad and the Museum of Natural History in Basrah.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Atkinson-Willes (1976); Carp (1980); Evans (1994); Georg & Savage (1970b); Georg & Vielliard (1968, 1970); Koning & Dijksen (1973); Marchant & Macnab (1962).

Reasons for inclusion: 1a, 2a, 3a & 3c. Until recently at least, one of the few remaining groups of freshwater lakes and marshes in central Iraq, and an extremely important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl, including Marmaronetta angustirostris and Aythya nyroca.

Source: See references.

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Attariya Plains (6)

Location: 3325'N, 4455'E; on the plains to the east of the Tigris River, about 45 km east-northeast of Baghdad, Baghdad Governorate.

Area: c.40,000 ha.

Altitude: c.50 m.

Overview: A complex of shallow seasonal lagoons with a deeper, permanent central pool and a large area of seasonally flooded arable land in semi-desert country on the vast plains to the east of the Tigris River; important for wintering waterfowl including geese and cranes.

Physical and ecological features: The Attariya Plains comprise an area of several hundred square kilometres of semi-desertic plains, irrigated arable land, and seasonally inundated lagoons and marshes, with a small area of permanent wetland habitat. The central, permanent wetland consists of a brackish pool, covering about 50 ha and with a maximum depth of 1.8-2.0 metres, surrounded by an extensive belt of Phragmites and Typha reed-beds. A canal takes water north from this pool to irrigated agricultural land in the semi-desert to the north. The adjacent plains are dominated by species of Alhaji and Acacia.

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. The wetland has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: In the early 1970s, the Iraq Natural History Museum identified the area as being suitable for the creation of a nature reserve, because of its importance for wildlife and proximity to Baghdad, but no further action was taken.

Land use: Water from the permanent lagoon is used for irrigation purposes. Waterfowl are netted for sale in Baghdad markets, and there is some recreational shooting by people from Baghdad at weekends and holidays. Sheep graze throughout the area.

Disturbances and threats: The site is threatened by drainage of the wetlands to the north from where it obtains much of its water. The area was subjected to heavy hunting pressure in the 1960s and 1970s. Waterfowl were shot from cars during the day, and netted at night for sale in Baghdad. Carp (1975a) reported that as many as 200 birds, mainly Fulica atra, could be trapped with clap-nets by a single team in one night, and estimated that a season's catch might amount to 10,000-20,000 birds.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: Known to be an important wintering area for geese, Tadorna ferruginea, dabbling ducks, Grus grus, Fulica atra and some shorebirds in the 1960s and 1970s, but no more recent information is available. Partial counts in the 1970s included up to 70 Pelecanus sp., 19 Plegadis falcinellus, 20 Ciconia ciconia, 50 Anser anser, 412 Tadorna ferruginea, 6,000 Anas crecca, 200 A. acuta, 200 A. clypeata, 13 Aythya nyroca, 2,100 Fulica atra, 20 Recurvirostra avosetta, 16 Vanellus indicus, 15 V. leucurus, 2,500 Limosa limosa, 1,000 Larus ridibundus, 160 L. cachinnans and 20 Chlidonias hybridus. Two Phalacrocorax pygmaeus and two Botaurus stellaris were present in January 1975, along with an impressive roost of several million Starlings Sturnus vulgaris (Carp, 1975a). Glareola pratincola breeds on the plains, and Charadrius asiaticus has been recorded on migration (maximum 300).

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: Mid-winter waterfowl surveys were undertaken in 1975 and 1979 by the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) in collaboration with the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad and the Museum of Natural History in Basrah. The wetland was considered by Carp (1975a) to be an excellent site for a small field laboratory for research by scientists and students from Baghdad.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Carp (1975a, 1975b); Carp & Scott (1979); Evans (1994); Scott & Carp (1982).

Reasons for inclusion: 3b & 3c. An important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl, notably Anser spp, Tadorna ferruginea and Grus grus.

Source: See references.

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Haur Al Shubaicha (7)

Location: 3300'N, 4523'E; on the plains to the north of the Tigris River, about 85 km east-southeast of Baghdad, Diyala and Wasit Governorates.

Area: c.40,000 ha.

Altitude: c.35 m.

Physical and ecological features: A large saline lake (perhaps largely seasonal) with extensive brackish to saline marshes, on semi-desertic plains about 30 km north of the Tigris River. The lake is bounded to the south by a levee, and is situated within a large area of sand dunes. It is about 40 km from north to south and up to 10 km from east to west, and is fed by numerous perennial streams.

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. The wetland has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: None known.

Land use: No information.

Disturbances and threats: No information.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: No information is available. Scott and Carp (1982) identified the site as possibly being of great importance for passage and wintering waterfowl, but no faunal surveys have ever been carried out.

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: None known.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Evans (1994); Scott & Carp (1982).

Reasons for inclusion: 1a. A large, natural, saline lake with associated marshes, possibly of considerable importance for migratory waterfowl but very poorly known.

Source: See references.

_______

Lake Al Habbaniya and Ramadi Marshes (8)

Location: 3316'N, 4330'E; on the south bank of the Euphrates near the town of Al Habbaniya, about 70 km west of Baghdad, Al Anbar Governorate.

Area: At least 20,000 ha.

Altitude: c.45 m.

Overview: A former lake in a saline depression, now used for flood relief and water storage; important as a staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl.

Physical and ecological features: Lake Al Habbaniya was formerly a brackish to saline lake in a large saline depression to the south of the Euphrates River. Inlet and outlet canals have been constructed to connect the lake with the Euphrates River and to allow its use for flood relief and water storage. The lake is now a deep, brackish, oligotrophic lake, about 25 km in length (from east to west) and up to 15 km wide. During spring flooding in the Euphrates, water enters the lake via the inlet canal at the west end near Ramadi, where there are marshes with some reed-beds. Water is discharged back into the Euphrates during August-October through the Dhibban canal which cuts through the gypsum plateau separating the lake from the river. A third canal (the Mujarah Canal) carries any excess water 50 km south to Lake Razazah (Bahr Al Milh). The water level in the lake can fluctuate by as much as 6.0 m, depending on the size of the spring flood, with the highest levels occurring from about the end of April to August, and the lowest levels from November to March. In December 1972, when the water level was very low, all of the reed-beds had dried out and hundreds of nomads were camping on the bed of the lake (Koning & Dijksen, 1973).

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. Lake Al Habbaniya was listed as a wetland of international importance by Carp (1980), and has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: None known.

Land use: Flood relief, water storage for irrigation, fishing and outdoor recreation. The lake is visited by many people from Baghdad at weekends and public holidays, and there has been some tourist development in the area.

Disturbances and threats: Lake Habbaniya has probably lost much of its importance for waterfowl in recent years because of excessive disturbance from recreation activities.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: The lake supports an important commercial fishery, and is a popular recreation area for people from Baghdad, only 70 km away.

Noteworthy fauna: Lake Al Habbaniya was at least formerly an extremely important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl, notably Anser anser (maximum 300), Tadorna ferruginea (maximum 84), Anas platyrhynchos, A. crecca, A. clypeata, Mergellus albellus (maximum 30) and Grus grus. Large numbers of Platalea leucorodia (200) have also occurred in winter. However, Koning and Dijksen (1973) found only a few hundred waterfowl in December 1972, when water levels were exceptionally low. These included 35 Podiceps nigricollis, 15 Phoenicopterus ruber, 130 ducks, 50 Larus ridibundus, 250 L. cachinnans and a few shorebirds. Sterna hirundo and S. albifrons (15 pairs) have bred on islands formed during periods of high water level; Tadorna ferruginea is said to breed in the area, and Marmaronetta angustirostris has probably bred in the marshes around the lake. A single Oxyura leucocephala was recorded at the lake in November 1956 (Anstey, 1989).

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: Mid-winter waterfowl surveys were undertaken in 1972 and 1975 by the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) in collaboration with the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad and the Museum of Natural History in Basrah.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Anstey (1989); Carp (1975a, 1975b, 1980); Chapman & McGeoch (1956); Evans (1994); Georg & Savage (1970b); Koning & Dijksen (1973); Savage (1968).

Reasons for inclusion: 1a, (2a) & 3b. An important breeding, staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl, and probably a breeding area for Marmaronetta angustirostris.

Source: See references.

_______

Lake Razazah (Bahr Al Milh) (9)

Location: 3231'-3302'N, 4326'-4355'E; on the plains to the west of the Euphrates River, about 10 km west of Karbala and 80 km southwest of Baghdad, Karbala Governorate. Approximate centre at 3245'N, 4353'E.

Area: c.150,000 ha.

Altitude: c.45 m.

Overview: A deep brackish lake used for the storage of excess floodwaters from the Euphrates River; of great importance for breeding, passage and wintering waterfowl, but subject to extremely heavy hunting pressure in recent years.

Physical and ecological features: Lake Razazah is a deep, brackish lake with many islands, peninsulas and stretches of low cliff shoreline, surrounded by desert. The lake is approximately 60 km long (from north to south) and up to 40 km wide. It occupies the area of two former salt lakes, Bahr Al Milh and Haur Abu Dibis, in a large saline depression on the semi-desertic plains to the west of the Euphrates River. Lake Razazah was created in the 1970s as a second storage reservoir to take excess water from Lake Al Habbaniya (Site 8), diverted through the 50 km long Mujarah Canal; it is also fed by a natural spring. The salinity of the lake has been increasing since its creation, and now stands at about 2.0-2.2%. There is a small, shallow, freshwater lake (Lake Usathe or Shithathah; 3237'N, 4355'E) of about 100 ha in extent a few kilometres from the southeast corner of Lake Razazah. This lake, which has some emergent vegetation, provides feeding habitat for waterfowl which roost on Lake Razazah.

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. Lake Razazah (Haur Abu Dibis and Bahr Al Milh) was listed as a wetland of international importance by Carp (1980), and has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: None known.

Land use: Water storage basin for irrigation purposes; also fishing and waterfowl hunting.

Disturbances and threats: In the 1970s, it appeared that military activities and the use of the area for recreation might pose threats. Some shooting and netting of waterfowl was reported in the 1970s, but at relatively low levels. However, in the winter of 1991/92, over 40,000 ducks and 40,000 Fulica atra were estimated to have been sold in the markets of Karbala and Najaf, most of these probably having come from Lake Razazah (K.Y. Al-Dabbagh, in litt.). According to Al-Robaae (in press), Lake Razazah is now a major waterfowl hunting area, with birds being taken mainly by nets to supply markets as far afield as Baghdad and Hilla. Al-Robaae estimates that the total number of birds sold in Central and Southern Iraq in recent years, since the imposition of the UN embargo, exceeds 300,000 in a season; many of these birds are thought to come from Lake Razazah. Shrimp farming and the introduction of tilapia have both been proposed for Lake Razazah.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: Lake Razazah is an extremely important staging and wintering area for a wide variety of waterfowl, notably grebes, cormorants, pelicans, flamingos, ducks, coots and gulls. Over 100,000 waterfowl were recorded during very incomplete censuses in January 1975 and January 1979. These included up to 600 Podiceps cristatus, 1,100 P. nigricollis, 3,000 Phalacrocorax carbo, 600 Pelecanus onocrotalus, 3 P. crispus, 50 Casmerodius albus, 200 Platalea leucorodia, 3,500 Phoenicopterus ruber, 730 Tadorna tadorna, 1,500 Anas penelope, 3,000 A. strepera, 7,500 A. crecca, 3,000 A. platyrhynchos, 2,000 A. acuta, 5,400 A. clypeata, 2,000 Aythya ferina, 1,600 A. fuligula, 1,000 Mergellus albellus, 102,500 Fulica atra, 5 Grus grus, 300 Recurvirostra avosetta, 100 Vanellus leucurus, 320 Calidris alpina, 200 Larus ridibundus, 200 L. genei and 80 L. cachinnans. Three Cygnus olor were present on Lake Usathe in January 1979. Birds of prey recorded in January 1979 included Aquila heliaca (2), Circus aeruginosus (6), C. cyaneus and Falco columbarius. The lake is also of considerable importance for breeding waterfowl. In the late 1970s, about 50 pairs of Marmaronetta angustirostris were breeding around Lake Razazah and at least another 20 pairs at Lake Usathe (Ctyroky, 1987). Other breeding species included Himantopus himantopus (100 pairs), Charadrius alexandrinus (300 pairs) and Vanellus leucurus (300 pairs). Recurvirostra avosetta was possibly breeding.

The lake is rich in fish, and the spiny-tailed lizard Uromastix sp. is said to be abundant around the lake shore.

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: Mid-winter waterfowl surveys were undertaken in 1975 and 1979 by the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) in collaboration with the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad and the Museum of Natural History in Basrah. Ctyroky (1987) investigated the birdlife during the breeding season in the late 1970s.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Al-Robaae (in press); Carp (1975a, 1975b, 1980); Carp & Scott (1979); Ctyroky (1987); Evans (1994); Georg & Savage (1970b); Scott & Carp (1982).

Reasons for inclusion: 1a, 2a, 3a & 3c. An important breeding area for Marmaronetta angustirostris, and an extremely important staging and wintering area for a wide variety of migratory waterfowl.

Source: See references.

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Al Musayyib Wetlands (10)

Location: 3250'N, 4418'E; on either side of the main Baghdad to Karbala road between the towns of Al Musayyib and Haswa, about 50 km south of Baghdad, Babil Governorate.

Area: At least 1,000 ha.

Altitude: c.45 m.

Physical and ecological features: An area of seasonally flooded semi-desertic steppe on the east bank of the Euphrates River, north of the town of Al Musayyib.

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. The wetland has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: None known.

Land use: No information.

Disturbances and threats: No information.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: At least formerly an important wintering area for migratory waterfowl, identified by Atkinson-Willes (1976) as being of international importance for Anas crecca and A. clypeata. About 25,000 waterfowl were recorded in January 1968, including 27 Egretta garzetta, 14 Ciconia ciconia, 230 Anser anser, 55 A. albifrons, 14,000 Anas crecca, 1,200 A. platyrhynchos, 1,530 A. acuta, 6,000 A. clypeata, 45 Himantopus himantopus, 190 Recurvirostra avosetta, 180 Charadrius alexandrinus and 130 Tringa erythropus (Georg & Vielliard, 1968 & 1970). Birds of prey present at this time included Aquila heliaca, A. clanga, Circus aeruginosus and Falco peregrinus. No other censuses appear to have been carried out in this area.

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: A mid-winter waterfowl survey was undertaken in January 1968 by the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) in collaboration with the Museum of Natural History in Basrah.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Atkinson-Willes (1976); Evans (1994); Georg & Vielliard (1968, 1970).

Reasons for inclusion: 3a & 3c. Known to have been an important wintering area for migratory waterfowl, notably Anas crecca and A. clypeata.

Source: See references.

_______

Hindiya Barrage (11)

Location: 3242'N, 4417'E; on the Euphrates River 5 km south of Al Musayyib and 65 km south of Baghdad, Babil Governorate.

Area: Unknown.

Altitude: c.35 m.

Physical and ecological features: A barrage on the Euphrates River with some reed-beds and marshy areas with Salix patches. There are orchards, groves of date palms and vegetable gardens in the area.

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. The wetland has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: None known.

Land use: No information.

Disturbances and threats: The area was reported as being much disturbed by hunters in January 1968 (Georg & Vielliard, 1968). No recent information is available, but it is likely that the wetland habitats will have suffered from the decreasing flow of the Euphrates since the 1970s.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: Reported to be an important breeding area for waterfowl, but little information is available since the 1930s, when breeding birds included Podiceps nigricollis, Circus aeruginosus, Porphyrio porphyrio, Glareola pratincola, Vanellus leucurus, Larus genei, Sterna hirundo and Halcyon smyrnensis (Moore & Boswell, 1956-57). Marmaronetta angustirostris was described as a "plentiful" breeding species prior to about 1920 (Ticehurst et al., 1921-22), but has not been reported since then. Botaurus stellaris was heard booming in late May in the 1920s, and may have bred (Ticehurst et al., 1926). Savage (1968) considered Hindiya Barrage to be an important staging and wintering area for Anas platyrhynchos, A. crecca, A. clypeata and A. querquedula. Waterfowl and birds of prey recorded during a survey in January 1968 included 60 Egretta garzetta, 40 Ciconia ciconia, 1 Aquila heliaca, 2 A. clanga, 6 Circus aeruginosus, 3,200 Fulica atra and 4 Vanellus leucurus. No other censuses appear to have been carried out in this area.

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: A mid-winter waterfowl survey was undertaken in January 1968 by the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) in collaboration with the Museum of Natural History in Basrah.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Evans (1994); Georg & Vielliard (1968, 1970); Moore & Boswell (1956-57); Savage (1968); Ticehurst et al. (1921-22, 1926).

Reasons for inclusion: 2a & 3b. Known to have been an important breeding area for Marmaronetta angustirostris and an important staging and wintering area for a wide variety of migratory waterfowl.

Source: See references.

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Haur Ibn Najim (12)

Location: 3208'N, 4435'E; on the east bank of the Euphrates, about 35 km south-southeast of Hilla, Babil Governorate.

Area: c.10,000 ha.

Altitude: c.25 m.

Physical and ecological features: Haur Ibn Najim (Ibn Najam) comprises about 100 sq.km of permanent and seasonal marshes and rice fields in a shallow depression on the east bank of the Euphrates River, about 10 km inland from the river. The depression formerly contained a large semi-permanent brackish to saline lake, up to 16 km long at maximum flooding, but most of this had already been drained and converted into agricultural land by the late 1960s. The marshes are fed by seepage water from irrigation canals and spring floodwaters from the Euphrates.

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. Haur Ibn Najim was listed as a wetland of international importance by Carp (1980), and has been identified as an "Important Bird Area" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994).

Conservation measures proposed: None known.

Land use: Agriculture (especially rice) and waterfowl hunting.

Disturbances and threats: The Haur has presumably suffered badly from the decreasing flow of the Euphrates since the 1970s. The "Third River" canal appears to pass fairly close to the haur, and there may thus be a threat of drainage (Evans, 1994). vant Leven (1968) investigated the market hunting of waterfowl at Haur Ibn Najim in the late 1960s, and found that hunting pressure was heavy throughout the winter, with the hunters using shot-guns by day and by night and also nets. He estimated that over 20,000 ducks and coots were sold in the markets of Najaf and Shamiya during the winter of 1967/68, and calculated that the hunters were accounting for about 31% of the ducks and 56% of the coots which frequented the haur.

Hydrological and biophysical values: No information.

Social and cultural values: No information.

Noteworthy fauna: Haur Ibn Najim was, at least formerly, a very important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl, notably Anatidae and Fulica atra, and was identified by Atkinson-Willes (1976) as being of international importance for Anas clypeata. About 10,000 Anatidae and coots were observed during a census in January 1968, including 210 Anas crecca, 490 A. acuta, 3,270 A. clypeata and 5,345 Fulica atra. Four Cygnus columbianus were present in late February 1968 (Georg & Savage, 1970a).

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: A census of Anatidae and Fulica atra was carried out in January 1968.

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Atkinson-Willes (1976); Carp (1980); Evans (1994); Georg & Savage (1970a, 1970b); vant Leven (1968).

Reasons for inclusion: 3a & 3c. Known to have been a very important staging and wintering area for migratory waterfowl, especially Anas clypeata.

Source: See references.

_______

The Wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia (13-31)

Location: 2955'-3245'N, 4525'-4830'E; along the lower courses of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, from the region of Kut and Samawa in the west to the region of Basrah in the southeast. In Al Basrah, Al Muthanna, Dhi Qar, Maysan and Wasit Governorates.

Area: Between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 ha.

Altitude: From near sea level to approximately 30 m above sea level.

Physical features: In their lower courses, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers create a vast complex of shallow lakes and marshes variously estimated at between 15,000 sq.km and 20,000 sq.km in extent. These wetlands comprise a complex of interconnected, shallow, freshwater lakes, marshes and seasonally inundated floodplains extending from within 150 km of Baghdad in the northwest to the region of Basrah in the southeast. The principal lakes include the Haur Sa'adiyah and Haur Sanniya complex in the north, Haur Al Hammar in the south and Haur Al Hawizeh in the east. Winter rainfall in the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates in southern Turkey and northern Iraq cause extensive flooding throughout Mesopotamia and, under normal conditions, fill up the lake systems in the south. After passing through the marshes, the two rivers unite at Qurna to form the Shatt Al Arab which enters the Gulf at Fao some 165 km further downstream. Water levels reach their maximum in early spring and then fall by as much as two metres during the hot dry summer. Until recently, the average depth of water in the main marshes during the flood season was about 1.0-1.5 m and the maximum about 2.0-3.5 m, although a depth of approximately 6 m has been recorded in Haur Al Hawizeh (Salim, 1962). Most of the lakes and marshes are freshwater, but Haur Al Hammar, the lowest in the system and closest to the sea, is slightly brackish. Numerous artificial irrigation canals, some of great antiquity, take water from both main rivers. Noteworthy among these are the Gharraf Canal at Kut, the Butaira Canal above Amara and the Chahala and Musharra Canals at Amara - all taking water from the River Tigris. In more recent times, numerous large dams and barrages have been installed on the Tigris and Euphrates, and an elaborate network of canals has been constructed to permit irrigation of the fertile alluvial plains between the two rivers.

The 19 most important sectors of the wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia are listed in Table 1 and described separately below (Sites 13-31). The following sections of this account refer to the system as a whole.

Ecological features: Eight major wetland types can be identified:

An account of the vegetation of the marshes of southern Iraq has been published in Arabic by the University of Basrah (Akbar, 1985). Throughout the wetlands, the emergent vegetation is dominated by Common Reed (Phragmites australis), Reedmace (Typha angustifolia), Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) and occasionally Arundo donax. Phragmites dominates the more permanent areas of marsh, and Typha the more seasonal areas of marsh, while Scirpus brachyceras dominates in temporarily flooded areas (Thesiger, 1954). The deeper, permanent lakes support a rich submerged aquatic vegetation with species such as hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum; often dominant), eel grass (Vallisneria spiralis), pondweed (Potamogeton lucens and P. pectinatus), water milfoil (Myriophyllum sp.), stonewort (Chara sp.), naiads (Najas marina and N. armata) and water fern (Salvinia sp.). Water-lilies (Nymphoides peltata, N. indica, Nymphaea caerulea and Nuphar sp.), water soldier (Pistia stratiotes) and duckweed (Lemna gibba) cover the surface of the smaller lakes and quieter backwaters.

The phytoplankton is dominated by diatoms, mainly of the genera Synedra, Tabellaria, Melosira, Cyclotella and Fragillaria; at least 77 diatom taxa (Hinton & Maulood, 1980) and 101 non-diatom taxa (Hinton & Maulood, 1982) are known from the brackish waters of southern Iraq. Pankow et al. (1979) found a total of 129 algae in the marshes near Qurna (72 Bacillariophyta, 28 Chlorophyta, 26 Cyanophyta, two Euglenophta and one Chrysophyta); large numbers of Desmidiaceae were also present. Al-Saboonchi et al. (1982) found a total of 63 genera of phytoplankton in five major groups (Euglenophyta, Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Pyrrhophyta, Chrysophyta) in the Qurna marshes. Nurul-Islam (1982) documented 59 algae from Haur Al Hammar (38 Chlorophyta, 19 Cyanophyta and two Rhodophyta).

Land tenure: No information.

Conservation measures taken: None. Twelve of the wetlands of lower Mesopotamia were listed as wetlands of international importance by Carp (1980), and all 19 of the wetlands described as Sites 13 to 31 have been identified as "Important Bird Areas" by BirdLife International (Evans, 1994). BirdLife International has also identified the Mesopotamian marshes of Iraq as an "Endemic Bird Area", i.e. an important concentration of bird biodiversity where habitat destruction would cause disproportionately large numbers of species extinctions (ICBP, 1992). The marshes qualify as one of only 221 Endemic Bird Areas in the world, and one of only 11 which are wholly or largely non-marine wetlands, because they support almost the entire world population of two species, the Basrah Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis) and Iraq Babbler (Turdoides altirostris).

Conservation measures proposed: An IWRB/Basrah University Expedition in 1979 made a number of proposals concerning conservation of the wetlands of Mesopotamia (Carp & Scott, 1979). Specifically, it was recommended that some form of conservation area be created at Haur Al Hammar. No further action was taken, and since that time, vast areas of the wetlands have been degraded or destroyed as a result of massive flood control and drainage schemes (see below). More recently, a report entitled "Environmental and Ecological Study of the Marshlands of Mesopotamia" (Maltby, 1994) makes a number of recommendations for the conservation of remaining wetland habitats and restoration of degraded areas.

Land use: Within the marshes, the principal activities are buffalo rearing, fishing, hunting, rice cultivation and mat-weaving. The water buffalo provide milk, butter, yoghurt, meat and dung; for most of the year, they graze in the reed-beds, but in winter they remain tethered on platforms and are fed with cut reed shoots. Fishing occurs throughout the wetlands, and accounts for over 60% of the inland fish catch in Iraq. Until recently, spear-fishing was the most widespread technique, but this has largely been replaced by netting with various types of nets. Waterfowl hunting is also very important in the local economy, with enormous numbers of waterfowl being harvested on a commercial basis each year, and providing a livelihood for hundreds of people (Alnoori, 1976; Salim, 1962; Al-Robaae, in press). Reeds are used in the construction of floating islands for villages and, when woven, provide pliable coverings used in housing, fencing and packaging. Reeds are also harvested commercially to provide pulp for a paper factory near Basrah. The elaborate network of rivers and canals is used extensively for boat transportation, and until recently provided the only means of travel between the many settlements in the marshes. Rice is cultivated in shallow wetlands, and some vegetables, especially tomatoes, are grown on artificial islands within the marshes. Reclaimed areas of marsh and the adjacent irrigated plains are widely cultivated for millet, rice, wheat, barley, sugar cane and dates.

Possible changes in land use: See under disturbances and threats.

Disturbances and threats: Prior to the onset of massive hydrological engineering works in Lower Mesopotamia in about 1991, the principal threats to the wetlands were as follows:

The increasing utilization of the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates for irrigation in Turkey, Syria and northern and central Iraq has caused a considerable loss of wetland habitat in lower Mesopotamia this century. Under normal circumstances, the waters of the Mesopotamian marshlands are replenished each year during the flood season from March to July. However, in recent decades there has been a marked reduction in the extent of the flooding because of the numerous dams and flood relief systems which have been constructed upstream on the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Dams on the Tigris and its tributaries in Iraq include the Samarra Dam and associated Lake Tharthar, Aski Mosul Dam north of Mosul together with a new extension built just south of the main dam, Darbandikhan Dam on the Diyala River, a sunken dam on the Diyala River near Al Sedoor (Shahraban) and Dukan Dam on the Little Zab River. A new dam is currently under construction on the highly seasonal Al Authaim River near Jabal Hemrin. Because of these many dams, there has been only one noticeable flood of the River Tigris in the last ten years. This occurred in 1988, mainly because water was allowed to by-pass the various dams and barrages upstream.

The irrigation and water storage projects currently operating on the River Euphrates within Iraq include Lake Habbaniya, Lake Razazah and the new Haditha Dam. Further upstream, there are several dams on the Euphrates in Turkey and Syria. These dams have had a pronounced effect on the level of water in the Euphrates which has been very low in recent years. Furthermore, the Turkish Government has recently initiated a project to build several major dams in the headwaters of both the Euphrates and the Tigris. It has been estimated that by 1993, existing dams and barrages upstream on the Tigris and Euphrates had caused a flow reduction of 44% in the Tigris at Kut and 21% in the Euphrates at Hindiya. When all of the existing and proposed physical developments are fully operational, the flow will be reduced by 70% in the Tigris and 60% in the Euphrates (Maltby, 1994). Very little water will be left to flow into the marshes, and the vital annual recharge with floodwaters will cease. In the case of the Tigris, the main changes are due to works in Iraq; in the case of the Euphrates, to works in Turkey.

Wetland drainage has been taking place on a large scale since the 1950s and, by the end of the 1980s, had already resulted in the conversion of vast areas of former wetland habitat into agricultural land. Reduced flooding from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers had led to the drying out of marsh fringes and greatly facilitated the drainage of peripheral areas. Many areas had also been actively isolated from the main marshes with dykes and then drained to create agricultural land. As early as 1954, Wilfred Thesiger expressed concern at the future of the marshes and the welfare of their human inhabitants. In an article in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, he remarked that "in the next few years the marshes will be drained and the marshmen as I have known them will disappear" (Thesiger, 1954). In January 1979, Carp and Scott (1979) found much evidence of recent drainage works at some of the smaller haurs, and found that large parts of Haur Aluwez at the southeast corner of Haur Al Hammar had been dyked and drained to facilitate the exploitation of oil resources. Spencer (1982) likewise noted that the marshes were shrinking, and visited villages in the southeast portion of the Central Marshes which ten years previously had been surrounded by water but were now surrounded by dry arable land. By 1984, it was estimated that approximately 93,000 ha of marshes had been drained in the southeastern part of the Central Marshes and eastern part of the Haur Al Hammar marshes (Maltby, 1994).

In the last 15 years, the wetlands of lower Mesopotamia and neighbouring Iran have come under considerable pressure from regional conflicts. Much of the fighting during the prolonged Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) took place in and around the wetlands, and caused considerable damage to the marsh ecosystems. Haur Al Hawizeh probably suffered the most damage of all Iraqi wetlands. Several of the greatest battles of the war took place in these marshes, and involved extensive burning, heavy bombing and shelling, and widespread use of chemical weapons. Large areas of reed-beds were deliberately destroyed by Iraqi troops in Haur Al Hawizeh and the Central Marshes during searches for deserters; heavily armoured boats were used to crash through reed-beds, special reed-cutting machines were used, and large areas were simply set on fire. Similar methods were used after the 1991 Gulf War to search for anti-government rebels. In other respects, however, the Gulf War seems to have had relatively little impact on the Mesopotamian marshes. Wetland vegetation in the Khuzestan lowlands of neighbouring southwestern Iran was damaged by acidic "black rain" from the burning oil well-fields in Kuwait, and it seems likely that similar damage occurred in the wetlands around Basrah, only a short distance to the west. The type and magnitude of the damage is not known, but is likely to have been temporary and reversible.

During the 1980s, increasing salinity emerged as another serious threat to the wetlands, particularly in the southeast portion of Haur Al Hammar. In 1980, the salinity in the Shatt Al Arab at Qarmat Ali was around 0.5 p.p.t. This has now changed drastically, with values of more than 2 p.p.t being recorded in recent years, and the water is clearly becoming more saline. One of the contributing factors is likely to have been the linkage of the southern part of Haur Al Hammar (at Qarmat Ali) to a new canal, the "Al Basrah Canal", which runs parallel to the Shatt Al Arab into the Gulf. This canal was constructed during the Iran/Iraq War to provide a safe shipping lane between Basrah and the Gulf. Another reason for the increase in salinity is the continuous flushing of salts from irrigated land via drainage canals into the wetlands. Much of the waste water is discharged into the mouth of the Al Basrah Canal and thus enters Haur Al Hammar.

Levels of pollution in the marshes have increased substantially in recent years. Many reports indicate that the persistent insecticide Chloridrin is or was being obtained in Iran and sold to local residents of Haur Al Hawizeh as a quick method of poisoning and catching large quantities of fish for sale. The introduction of motor boats to the deeper areas of the marshes has led to noticeable and frequent oil pollution along the heavily used waterways between the main villages.

There has been a long history of heavy hunting pressure in the marshes. Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) are relentlessly persecuted by the Marsh Arabs because of the damage which they cause to crops, and for religious reasons. Maxwell refers to one village which claimed to have killed 140 Wild Boar in one year, while Thesiger (1954) shot as many as 47 in a single day and 488 in two years (Young, 1989). Although the Wild Boar is still the most abundant large mammal in the marshes, numbers have declined noticeably since the 1950s, presumably because of this high level of hunting. Thesiger (1964) noted that otters (Lutra spp.) were widely hunted for their skins, and mentioned one person who shot 40 otters in the space of two months. No otters were recorded during four waterfowl surveys between 1968 and 1979, and it seems likely that by that time the populations of both species were becoming much depleted by the hunters.

Waterfowl hunting occurs commonly at wetlands throughout Mesopotamia. Maxwell (1957) and Thesiger (1964) gave some indication of the massive scale of the hunting in the 1950s. Maxwell estimated that shot-guns alone were accounting for about a million birds a year in Iraq. Both he and Thesiger shot many waterfowl and noted that a wide variety of species were killed by the Marsh Arabs for food including not only huge numbers of ducks and Coots (Fulica atra), but also Little Grebes (Tachybaptus ruficollis), Pygmy Cormorants (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus), African Darters (Anhinga rufa), Goliath Herons (Ardea goliath), Sacred Ibises (Threskiornis aethiopicus), Common Cranes (Grus grus), Purple Swamphens (Porphyrio porphyrio) and godwits (Limosa sp.). Pelicans, although regarded as inedible, were shot or speared for their gular pouches which were used in drum-making. Thesiger (1954) noted that the Ma'dan often searched for the nests of Greylag Geese (Anser anser) and took their eggs to hatch them out under chickens. Clap-netting was also very widespread in the marshes, and was clearly accounting for large numbers of birds. Thesiger (1964) considered that a heavy toll of waterfowl was being taken by the professional hunters, while Maxwell (1957) noted that as many as 30 geese or 120 ducks and shorebirds could be trapped in the clap-nets at a single pull. Several of the resident breeding species such as Anhinga rufa, Ardea goliath and Threskiornis aethiopicus were already becoming very scarce by the late 1970s, probably because of direct persecution and increased disturbance.

In the 1970s, the Government introduced new laws banning all hunting in Iraq in order to conserve wildlife, particularly terrestrial game which had been heavily persecuted in the past. However, it was clear that these laws were widely disregarded in the marshes, at least in the case of duck-netting which was observed at many localities in January 1979 (Carp & Scott, 1979). Considerable numbers of wildfowl are still taken every year, mainly by netting, e.g. it has been estimated that a minimum of 40,000 ducks and Fulica atra were offered for sale in the markets of Karbala and Najaf in 1990 and 1991. Hunting pressure has increased markedly since 1991 because of the UN trade embargo and the unusually high prices of meat that have resulted. There are reasons to believe that netting has now become an organized business, approved by the Government. Al-Robaae (in press) investigated waterfowl hunting in Central and Lower Iraq in the 1992/93 and 1993/94 seasons, and found a total of 13 species of Anatidae on sale at 11 main markets. He estimated that about 30,000 ducks and geese were being sold each season in the Basrah market alone. The commonest species on sale were Anas platyrhynchos (27%), Aythya ferina (24%), Anas crecca (10%), A. strepera (9%), Aythya fuligula (8%), Anas acuta (5%) and A. clypeata (5%).

In the summer of 1991, the Iraqi Government embarked upon a massive programme of hydrological control and wetland drainage in Lower Mesopotamia, in an area that is roughly delineated by the triangle of Amara, Nasiriya and Basrah. The motivation behind this programme has been the subject of much speculation in the international media, while the engineering works have been described by various authors in the semi-popular literature, e.g. North (1993) and Pearce (1993). Officially, the engineering schemes are designed to reduce salinization problems on millions of hectares of agricultural land, to reclaim new land for food production, and to increase the amount of water available for irrigation. The largest single project, the Main Outfall Drain, or "Third River" as it is now commonly known, was first suggested by British engineers in 1951 as a means of removing highly saline irrigation drainage water from 1.5 million hectares of agricultural land between the Tigris and Euphrates in central Iraq. Parts of the Third River were begun in the 1950s and more was completed in the 1960s, but the entire project was not completed until December 1992, when the final section, linking the seaward end to that built at Delmaj northwest of Nasiriya, was constructed. This huge canal, some 560 km in length, runs southeast from Al Mahmudiya near Baghdad down the right bank of the Shatt Al Gharraf and crosses the Euphrates just east of Nasiriya, burrowing beneath the riverbed in three large pipes. It then skirts round the southwestern edge of Haur Al Hammar, crosses the southeast corner of the haur (between raised embankments), and finally joins up with the man-made Shatt Al Basrah canal which links the southeast corner of Haur Al Hammar to the head of the Gulf via Khawr Al Zubair. Extensive drainage has occurred along the southern and southeastern shores of Haur Al Hammar following the isolation of these areas from the rest of the haur by the embanked Third River.

Aerial photography from 1990 indicates that the Third River, at that time, was being engineered to pass under the Euphrates via an inverted siphon, thereby avoiding discharge of saline water into the Euphrates and hence into Haur Al Hammar. However, a dam of earth and stones has recently been constructed on the Euphrates 10 km southeast of Nasiriya, near the route of the canal. It appears from aerial photographs taken in March 1994 that this dam is diverting most of the river's flow into the Third River and hence directly into the Gulf, thereby completely depriving Haur Al Hammar and its marshes of one of their major sources of water. Further east, a continuous high embankment has been built along the southern side of the old bed of the Euphrates to prevent water seeping south from the Central Marshes into the Haur Al Hammar marshes, and a dam has been built across the bed of the Euphrates near its confluence with the Tigris to prevent back-flow from the north-south Al Amara Canal (see below) into the Euphrates and hence into the marshes.

In late 1992 or early 1993, a second earthen dam was constructed across a major branch of the Euphrates near Samawa. This dam diverts flow from the Euphrates via a 60-km-long canal into a new lake in a depression in the desert southeast of Samawa, and thus further reduces the amount of water reaching the Haur Al Hammar system. Satellite images and infra-red photography show a vast area of flooding in this depression in June 1993 and March 1994, although there was no indication of flooding here in July 1992.

Other intensive engineering activity has been occurring along the northern and eastern edges of the Central Marshes. About 40 rivers and streams which previously flowed into the Central Marshes have been diverted by the construction of a "moat" between two embankments across the northern end of the marshes. Completed in July 1992, this moat, which is about 2 km wide, extends for 35 km from the village of Al Jandallah southeastwards to Abu Ajil, near the Qalit Salih airfield, where it joins the Al Amara Canal, a similar moat which was dug for defensive purposes during the Iran/Iraq war. The Al Amara Canal runs southwards, just west of the Tigris, for 50 km to Qurna, where it discharges into the empty bed of the Euphrates near its confluence with the Tigris. The effect of this huge moat system is to capture almost the entire flow that once filled the Central Marshes. Locks and sluice gates have been placed at the head of the Tigris distributaries in the Amara area to regulate or halt the river's flow into the distributaries, and the banks of at least seven of the main distributaries have been raised to prevent their water from entering the marshes. In addition, dykes up to 30 km in length have been constructed into the marshes west of the Al Amara Canal, thereby dividing the marshes into compartments so that remaining water can be drained more quickly or left to evaporate. As a result of these engineering works, a large part of the Central Marshes has been drained, and it is now uncertain if any water from the Tigris is allowed to enter the marshes. A Landsat satellite image showed that more than one third of the Central Marshes had dried out by August 1992, while later reports indicated that about two-thirds of the marshes were dry by mid-1993.

There is, as yet, no indication that any attempt is being made to drain the whole of the Haur Al Hawizeh marshes, presumably because this haur is partly fed by rivers rising in Iran. However, a Landsat image taken in August 1992 reveals that large areas of the northwestern, western and southern shores of the haur have been drained, using river control and dyke-building, apparently for security reasons.

A comparison of Landsat images taken in 1984/85 and 1991/92 revealed that the area of permanent lakes and marshes, seasonal marshes and temporary marshes in Lower Mesopotamia had been reduced by over 25% from 1.94 million hectares to 1.44 million hectares during this seven-year period (Maltby, 1994). Many commentators now argue that the bulk of the evidence suggests that the immediate aim of many of these engineering works has been to drain the marshes for military and political purposes, rather than for agricultural purposes. In any event, there can be no doubt that the greater part of the Central Marshes and much of the Haur Al Hammar marshes have now been drained, with disastrous ecological, social and human consequences for the region.

Scott and Evans (1993) concluded that drainage of the wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia on this scale would almost certainly result in the global extinction of Lutra perspicillata maxwelli and Erythronesokia bunnii, the extinction in the Middle East of Anhinga rufa and Threskiornis aethiopicus, and the extinction in Iraq of Phalacrocorax pygmaeus and Ardea goliath. Loss of these wetland habitats would also cause catastrophic declines in the world populations of Turdoides altirostris and Acrocephalus griseldis and in the regional population of Pelecanus crispus, possibly threatening them with extinction, and would cause perhaps as much as a 50% reduction in the world populations of Gerbillus mesopotamiae, Tachybaptus ruficollis iraquensis and Marmaronetta angustirostris. Drainage of these wetlands would also have an adverse effect on the populations of about 40 species of birds which occur in the marshes in internationally significant numbers, and would cause major declines in the regional populations of Pelecanus onocrotalus (30-60%), Ardea purpurea (>10%), Ixobrychus minutus (>10%), Plegadis falcinellus (>10%), Aythya fuligula (>20%), Circus aeruginosus (>10%), Porphyrio porphyrio (>50%) and Fulica atra (10-20%). Migratory populations of waterfowl would be affected over a very wide area from the West Siberian tundra to southern Africa, as one of the major staging and wintering areas in the West Siberian/Caspian/Nile flyway is lost. Clearly, as far as wildlife is concerned, the ongoing drainage of the wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia constitutes an ecological catastrophe of unprecedented proportions in Western Eurasia.

Hydrological and biophysical values: The wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia support a major fishery. Several marine fish species of great economic importance are dependent on the estuarine systems and marshes for spawning, e.g. the pomphret Pampus argenteus and the saboor Hilsa hilsa, while the penaeid shrimp Metapenaeus affinis undertakes seasonal migrations between the Gulf and nursery grounds in the marshes. This shrimp is of significant economic importance to artisanal fishermen along the coasts of the northern Gulf, particularly Kuwait (Maltby, 1994). The estimated annual catch of fish in the Mesopotamian marshes in the early 1960s was 30,000 tonnes, of which 70% were species of Cyprinidae. In 1990, FAO estimated that the total inland catch of fish in Iraq was 23,600 tonnes, with over 60% of this coming from the Mesopotamian marshes. The commonest fish in the catches, in order of importance, are "bunni" Barbus sharpeyi, "khatan" B. xanthopterus, "himri" B. luteus, "shaboot" B. grypus and the introduced common carp Cyprinus carpio. Commercial landings of the shrimp Metapenaeus affinis at the two main fish markets at Basrah during September-November 1985 averaged 1,000 kg/day (Salman et al., 1990).

Social and cultural values: Lower Mesopotamia is the legendary site of the Garden of Eden, and possesses a number of ruined cities of great antiquity such as Ur and Babylon. Civilization was well established in this region by the 4th millennium BC, and a sophisticated irrigation system developed at that time. The Mesopotamian marshes have provided a home for the Ma'dan or Marsh Arabs for at least five thousand years. Their reed houses are built on artificial islands made from layers of mats, reeds and mud, and, until recently, virtually all of their needs were obtained from the surrounding lakes and marshes. The Ma'dan are primarily buffalo herders, fishermen and mat-weavers, although they cultivate a little rice. Water buffalo remain the basis of family wealth, but in recent years fishing has played an increasing role in the local economy. Traditionally spear-fishermen, catching species of barbel and carp only for their own needs, the Ma'dan have taken to using nets to catch fish for export to Basrah and Baghdad. Mat-weaving has also become an important source of income, as demand elsewhere has grown for these pliable coverings used in housing, fencing and packaging. In a region where travel is possible only by boat, the vast stretches of water and reeds have served to isolate the Ma'dan from the outside world; for this region, their culture has remained almost unchanged to the present time. The lifestyle of the Ma'dan has been described in some detail by Thesiger (1954 & 1964), Maxwell (1957), Salim (1962), Young and Wheeler (1976), Spencer (1982) and Young (1989).

Noteworthy fauna: The wetlands of Mesopotamia are sufficiently large and have been isolated from other comparable wetland areas for a sufficient length of time to allow for the evolution of several forms of animals which are unique to these wetlands. These include two species of mammals (Erythronesokia bunnii and Gerbillus mesopotamiae), one subspecies of mammal (Lutra perspicillata maxwelli), two species of birds (Turdoides altirostris and Acrocephalus griseldis), two subspecies of birds (Tachybaptus ruficollis iraquensis and Anhinga rufa chantrei), and several species and subspecies of fish, notably Barbus sharpeyi, Leuciscus cephalus orientalis, Caecocypris basimi and Typhlogarra widdowsoni.

Rather few species of mammals occur commonly in the wetlands. Thesiger (1964) and Maxwell (1957) make numerous references to the abundance of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) throughout the marshlands, and found them to be particularly common at Haur Al Hawizeh. However, the boar have been heavily hunted by the Marsh Arabs, and although the species is still the most abundant large mammal in the marshes, numbers have declined noticeably in recent years. Two species of otters have been recorded in the marshes, the Common Otter Lutra lutra and the Smooth-coated Otter Lutra perspicillata. Both Maxwell (1957) and Thesiger (1964) saw otters on a number of occasions, and describe them as common around Haur Az Zikri in the Central Marshes and at Haur Al Hawizeh. However, otters (presumably of both species) were heavily persecuted for their skins in the 1950s (Thesiger, 1964), and are now extremely rare in the marshes, if they survive at all. The form of L. perspicillata occurring in the Mesopotamian marshes has been described as a distinct subspecies maxwelli. It was discovered at Haur Al Hawizeh in 1956 by Maxwell (1957), who obtained an otter skin and a live otter cub. There have been only two further records of L. perspicillata in Iraq, both in the late 1950s from the region of Al Azair in the Central Marshes, and it is possible that the endemic subspecies maxwelli is now extinct. Lions (Panthera leo) survived in riverine thickets of the marshlands into the present century, but were finally exterminated when the Marsh Arabs acquired modern rifles during the First World War. The Leopard (Panthera pardus) is likewise extinct in lower Mesopotamia; there is only one record from the marshlands - an individual shot in 1945 just above Kut by the River Tigris.

Large mammals which are still regularly encountered in the marshes include the Asiatic Jackal (Canis aureus), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus). Various other mammals, notably Grey Wolf (Canis lupus), Honey Badger (Mellivora capensis), Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena), Jungle Cat (Felis chaus), Goitred Gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) and Indian Crested Porcupine (Hystrix indica), have been recorded in and around the marshes in the past, but all had become rare by the 1980s, and it is thought likely that most are now extinct in the area.

Small mammals recorded in and around the marshes include a recently described species of bandicoot rat Erythronesokia bunnii, an endemic species of gerbil Gerbillus mesopotamicus, a hedgehog, three species of shrews, eight to 11 species of insectivorous bats, a jerboa, four other species of rats and mice, and three other species of gerbils and jirds. The commonest rodent in the area is the Short-tailed Bandicoot Nesokia indica, a species which is particularly associated with the banks of wetlands. The bandicoot rat E. bunnii was discovered as recently as the late 1970s in the Central Marshes at Qurna (Khajuria, 1980). Little is known about the species, but it would appear to be confined entirely to the marshlands of southern Iraq. Harrison's Gerbil G. mesopotamiae is known only from the vicinity of wetlands in lower Mesopotamia and adjacent Khuzestan in southwestern Iran. Formerly thought to be a subspecies of G. dasyurus, this highly colonial gerbil exhibits a marked degree of water-dependence for a gerbil, and is not able to survive without it. The gerbil appears to be not uncommon in the uncultivated, sparsely-vegetated fringe of the marshes and along the banks of the Euphrates. Notable among the bats is the rare and declining Long-fingered Bat (Myotis capaccinii), recorded at Kish on the edge of the wetlands. This species is considered to be globally threatened (Groombridge, 1993).

Domestic water buffalo are abundant throughout the marshes and are of considerable importance in the local economy. According to Maxwell (1957), there is evidence to suggest that these animals were first introduced into Mesopotamia in about 3500 BC. Hatt (1959), however, presents archaeological evidence which suggests that the species was formerly wild in the marshes, before domestication.

Of the 278 species of birds which have been recorded in lower Mesopotamia, 134 are species which are to some extent dependent on the wetland habitats and occur in Mesopotamia in significant numbers. Two of these species, the Iraq Babbler Turdoides altirostris and Basrah Reed Warbler Acrocephalus griseldis, are known to breed only in this area. Turdoides altirostris is confined to the lower Tigris and Euphrates valleys of central and southern Iraq and extreme southwestern Iran (Khuzestan Province). Its distribution is centred on the reed-beds of the Mesopotamian marshes, although it is also one of the commonest birds of rural habitats along rivers and irrigation canals throughout the lowlands of central Iraq (Al-Dabbagh & Bunni, 1981). Acrocephalus griseldis is a common breeding summer visitor to the reed-beds of Mesopotamia between Baghdad and the Shatt Al-Arab in the region of Basrah. As far as is known, the breeding range is confined to southern Iraq, along the lower Euphrates and Tigris rivers from the Baghdad area to Fao.

The populations of two species of waterfowl, almost confined to the wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia, have been described as distinct subspecies: the Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis iraquensis and African Darter Anhinga rufa chantrei. T. ruficollis iraquensis is known to occur only in the wetlands of Mesopotamia and in neighbouring southwestern Iran. It is a common and widespread breeding bird in the wetlands of southern Iraq, found even on small temporary pools beside main highways. A. rufa chantrei, however, is now confined to the marshes of Lower Mesopotamia and is probably close to extinction, if not already extinct. The species formerly bred at Amik Golu (Lake Antioch) in Turkey, but became extinct there following drainage in the 1950s. Ticehurst et al. (1921-22) described the bird as common and resident in the huge marshes round Qurna and east of Amara and Ezra's Tomb (Al Azair). La Personne found large numbers nesting in the Rotha Marshes (25 km from Qurna) and also a few nesting in the Medina Marshes at Bani Mansur (30 km north of Medina) in July 1921 (Ticehurst et al., 1926). Maxwell (1957) and Thesiger (1964) also found it commonly in the Central Marshes and around Haur Al Hawizeh. Moore and Boswell (1956-57), however, encountered the bird only once (a single bird near Amara in November 1945), and concluded that the species was scarce and local. Large colonies were reported in 1973 near Qurna (P.V.G. Kainady, in litt.), but none was reported in any of the four IWRB waterfowl surveys between 1968 and 1979, and there do not appear to have been any records in Iraq since the early 1980s.

Eleven species of birds listed in the 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (Groombridge, 1993) have occurred in the marshes of lower Mesopotamia. The Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus crispus is a common winter visitor, and probably also a resident breeding species. Pelicans are known to have bred in the marshes, but it is not known which of the two species is involved, although Pelecanus crispus is the more likely. Thesiger (1954) observed unfledged young at Umm Al Binni in the Central Marshes, but did not attempt to identify the species. The four mid-winter waterfowl surveys between 1968 and 1979 revealed that the wetlands of Mesopotamia are an extremely important wintering area for Pelecanus crispus. Some 247 were recorded in January 1979, and it was concluded that the total number in Mesopotamia at that time could be as high as 1,000.

The Pygmy Cormorant Phalacrocorax pygmaeus was formerly a common resident, breeding in some of the marshes and moving out locally to the rivers and other marshes in winter (Ticehurst et al., 1921-22). In July 1922, La Personne found the species breeding in large numbers in dense, high reed-beds at Bani Mansur in the Medina Marshes, 32 km north of Medina, and in vast numbers near Anzha in the Rotha Marshes, 25 km from Qurna (Cheesman 1922; Ticehurst et al., 1926). No-one has found a colony since, and the breeding status of this bird remains obscure. The waterfowl surveys between 1968 and 1979 confirmed that the species remained fairly common in winter, with up to 100 being recorded at one locality, and it seemed likely that the total number in the marshes at that time exceeded 500.

The Lesser White-fronted Goose Anser erythropus was formerly a regular winter visitor, although always less common than A. albifrons. According to Savage (1968), the species was still found in quite large numbers in the Haur Al Shuwaija area in the 1960s. However, the species was recorded only once during the IWRB surveys: a flock of 70 at Haur Al Shuwaija in December 1972. Savage (1968) reported that several hundred Red-breasted Geese Branta ruficollis regularly wintered in the Haur Al Shuwaija area, but none was recorded in Mesopotamia during the four IWRB surveys between 1968 and 1979, or since then.

The Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris is known to breed widely in Mesopotamia (Green, 1993). Ticehurst et al. (1921-22) reported it to be a fairly common breeder in southern Iraq; Moore and Boswell (1956-57) found it breeding along dykes and irrigation canals in the Kut area, in the Hai area and at Haur Al Shuwaija; and Thesiger (1964) found it in the Central Marshes during the summer months. The species remained a common summer visitor to wetlands throughout Mesopotamia during the 1970s and 1980s. However, there have been very few reports of M. angustirostris in Mesopotamia in winter, and none was reported during the four winter surveys between 1968 and 1979. Thus it appears that the species is almost entirely a breeding summer visitor to Mesopotamia, as concluded by Georg and Savage (1970b). The total breeding population in Iraq is thought to be at least 4,000-6,000 pairs, which represents some 40-60% of the world population of this threatened species. The White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala appears to be only a very scarce winter visitor. One was shot near Kut in 1920, and one was seen near the west end of Haur Al Hammar in December 1972 (Anstey, 1989).

The Pallas's Fish-Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus was formerly a scarce winter visitor to the wetlands of Mesopotamia, but there do not appear to have been any records since 1944 (Moore & Boswell, 1956-57). The status of the White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla is uncertain. Most authors list it as a winter visitor in small numbers. Moore and Boswell (1956-57) found it to be a regular winter visitor to Haur Al Shuwaija and also observed it near Qurna and along the Shatt Al Arab. Five were recorded during the mid-winter waterfowl survey in 1968 and five during the survey in 1972, but none in the later surveys of 1975 and 1979. However, Maxwell (1957) stated that the species nested in the reed-beds. Thesiger (1964) also referred to eagles nesting in the reed-beds, but did not indicate which species was involved. The Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca is a fairly common winter visitor to the Mesopotamian plains. Counts of 11, 24, 7 and 34 were obtained during the mid-winter waterfowl censuses of 1968, 1972, 1975 and 1979 respectively, and it seemed likely that the total wintering population of this species in Mesopotamia at that time exceeded 100 individuals.

The Sociable Plover Vanellus gregarius was formerly believed to be a locally common passage migrant and winter visitor in Mesopotamia, and was known from a number of localities (Ticehurst et al., 1921-22). Kasparek (1992) has recently reviewed the old records and has shown that the evidence for over-wintering in Iraq was inconclusive. He concluded that the species was only a passage migrant in Iraq, as it is elsewhere in the Middle East. V. gregarius had evidently already become rare in Mesopotamia by the 1940s, as Moore and Boswell (1956-57) encountered it only once (a single bird near Kut in November 1945). Johnson (1958) observed a flock of 15 in a marshy field near Ctesiphon by the Tigris in November 1957, but there do not appear to have been any records since then. The Slender-billed Curlew Numenius tenuirostris was first recorded wintering in Iraq in the early part of this century. According to Ticehurst et al. (1921-22), "Buxton saw many on 16 December 1917 in a temporary winter lake in a hollow in the bare desert ten miles north of Amara and secured a specimen". However, 62 years elapsed before the next record, also of a small flock (six birds) on the southern shore of Haur Al Hammar on 27 January 1979 (Scott & Carp, 1982). This was followed very rapidly by a record of a single bird in the Haur Al Hammar marshes near Nasiriya in the autumn of 1979 (T. Grochowski, in Gretton, 1991). In view of the vast extent of the habitat suitable for N. tenuirostris in Mesopotamia and the very poor coverage of these wetlands by ornithologists, there is a distinct possibility that a significant wintering population of this endangered species continues to survive there.

The lakes and marshes of lower Mesopotamia are one of the most important wintering areas for migratory waterfowl in western Eurasia. Georg and Savage (1970a) believed that the marshes of Haur Al Hammar and Haur Al Hawizeh together "probably provide habitat for two-thirds of the wintering wildfowl of the Middle East". Waterfowl recorded during four IWRB mid-winter waterfowl surveys in the marshes of lower Mesopotamia are summarized in Table 2. The first survey, in January 1968, visited Aziziya, Kut, Haur Al Shuwaija, Haur Umm Roij, Shaikh Saad, Ali Gharbi, Haur Auriya, Al Kumait, Haur Haushiya, Amara, Haur Sanaf, Maymuna, Chahala, Azair, Qurna and Basrah, and recorded over 59,000 waterfowl of 55 species (Georg & Vielliard, 1968, 1970). The second survey, in December 1972, visited Kut, Jassan, Amara, Maymuna, Qurna, Basrah, Chubaisah, Nasiriya, Shatra and Dawaya, and observed a total of 152,000 waterfowl of 58 species (Koning & Dijksen, 1973). The third survey, in January/February 1975, visited Kut, Amara, Suweid Marshes, Basrah, the Shatt Al Arab, Haur Aluwez, Shafi wetland and Haur Mrebsher, and recorded almost 91,000 waterfowl of 45 species (Carp, 1975a, 1975b). The most recent mission, in January 1979, was much the most extensive, visiting 46 sites in the Mesopotamian marshlands including various sections of Haur Al Hammar, Haur As Sa'adiyah, Haur Uwainah, Haur Al Shuwaija and a number of small wetlands around Basrah. Over 324,000 waterfowl of 79 species were recorded, including 3,300 pelicans, 1,850 flamingos, 2,340 geese, 155,000 ducks, 128,000 coots, 16,600 shorebirds and 13,400 gulls and terns (Carp & Scott, 1979; Scott & Carp, 1982). These counts must represent only a small proportion of the total number of birds present, as the sheer vastness of the wetlands, problems of access and shortage of time prevented the survey teams from visiting more than a tiny fraction of the wetlands. Thus, Carp and Scott (1979) noted that they had been able to visit no more than 10% of the marshes, and stressed that the true number of birds present must have exceeded their counts by many fold. They concluded that the actual number of waterfowl in Mesopotamia in January 1979 probably amounted to several million.

No accurate estimate will ever be available for the number of waterfowl which once wintered in the Mesopotamian marshlands. It seems likely, however, that the waterfowl populations must have numbered in the many millions. The earliest accounts refer to "teeming flocks" and "countless numbers", but already by the 1950s, Thesiger (1964) was expressing concern at the way the numbers of birds were decreasing. He noticed a significant decline in numbers between 1951 and 1958, and stated that "throughout the marshes, ducks and geese were becoming scarcer year by year". Although large numbers of wintering waterfowl were still present in the late 1970s, the density of birds was not particularly impressive, and it was clear that the numbers of birds were well below the levels implied by Maxwell (1957) and Thesiger (1964).

In addition to providing regular wintering habitat for waterfowl, the wetlands of Mesopotamia serve as a vitally important refuge for waterfowl during periods of exceptionally severe weather further north. In hard winters, when many wetlands in eastern Turkey and the Caspian Region freeze over, large numbers of birds may be forced to move further south and seek refuge in the wetlands of Iraq and southern Iran. Evidence of such hard weather movements was apparent in January 1979. Totals of 40,900 Aythya fuligula and 1,004 Mergellus albellus in Mesopotamia in January 1979 were far in excess of the previous maxima of 6,800 and 68, respectively, suggesting an exceptional influx from the north. Similarly the presence of three rare visitors to Iraq, Cygnus olor, C. columbianus and Aythya marila, in January 1979 suggested that an unusual invasion of birds which normally spend the winter much further to the north had occurred (Scott & Carp, 1982).

The wetlands of Mesopotamia are also of great importance for wintering birds of prey. Over a thousand raptors of 15 species were observed during the waterfowl survey in 1979. The counts included 12 Pandion haliaetus, 429 Milvus migrans, 5 Haliaeetus albicilla, 3 Aegypius monachus, 286 Circus aeruginosus, 18 C. macrourus, 141 Buteo rufinus, 24 Aquila clanga, 12 A. nipalensis, 34 A. heliaca, 126 Falco tinnunculus, 7 F. columbarius and 6 F. peregrinus. Other species of birds which utilize the Mesopotamian marshlands as wintering habitat include a variety of passerines such as Motacilla alba, Anthus spinoletta, Lanius isabellinus, Luscinia svecica, Saxicola torquata, Emberiza schoeniclus, Passer hispaniolensis, Sturnus vulgaris and Corvus frugilegus.

The wetlands are also an extremely important staging area for a number of species of waterfowl on their way between breeding grounds in Western Siberia and Central Asia and winter quarters in eastern and southern Africa. Such passage migrants include a variety of herons and egrets (e.g. Egretta garzetta, Ardeola ralloides and Ixobrychus minutus), Anas querquedula, and a number of shorebirds (e.g. Charadrius hiaticula, Numenius phaeopus, various Tringa species, Calidris ferruginea and Philomachus pugnax). No systematic attempt has ever been made to document the migration of waterfowl through the Mesopotamian marshes, and it is impossible to provide an estimate of the total number of birds which might be involved.

The Mesopotamian marshes are of considerable importance for breeding waterfowl, including a substantial proportion of the world population of the rare Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris and the entire world population of the Middle Eastern subspecies of the African Darter Anhinga rufa chantrei (see above). The marshes also support isolated populations of two other primarily Afrotropical species: the Goliath Heron Ardea goliath and Sacred Ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus. According to Ticehurst et al. (1921-22), A. goliath was a not uncommon resident in the extensive swamps of Mesopotamia in the early part of the century. It was reported from the marshes between Basrah and Qurna, from the marshes near Amara and Kut, and round the Euphrates Barrage, and breeding was proved. Allouse (1953) described it as common in the southern marshes; Thesiger (1964) encountered it in the Central Marshes in the early 1950s, and Maxwell (1957) observed it in the Haur Al Hawizeh marshes. However, Moore and Boswell (1956-57) encountered the species only once - two birds at Haur Al Shuwaija in August 1943 - and none was recorded during the four waterfowl surveys between 1968 and 1979. P.V. Georg Kainady (pers. comm.) observed the bird on several occasions in the marshes near Basrah in the late 1970s, but noted that it was becoming very scarce. The last record appears to be of a bird at Haur Az Zikri in the Central Marshes in 1980.

The isolated Mesopotamian population of Threskiornis aethiopicus seems to have followed a similar fate to that of Ardea goliath. Cumming (1918) found the species to be plentiful at Fao in winter, and according to Ticehurst et al. (1921-22), "White Ibises certainly occur and not very uncommonly in the district from Amara to Fao". La Personne found a breeding colony of about 20 pairs together with other breeding waterfowl at Rotha marshes near Qurna in 1921 (Cheesman, 1922), and Ticehurst et al. (1926) noted that the species was also breeding at Abid near Qurna at about the same time. Moore and Boswell (1956-57) never encountered it, but Maxwell (1957) observed it on many occasions in the Central Marshes and in the Haur Al Hawizeh marshes in spring 1956, and implied that it was common. However, he noted that the ibis was a favourite quarry species of the local hunters and was very wary. The species appears to have become quite scarce by the late 1960s. Only one was observed during the 1968 waterfowl survey, and none was recorded during the surveys of 1972 and 1975. However, flocks of 36 and 4 were observed in January 1979, at Haur Al Rayan and Qalit Salih respectively. The species appears to have become very scarce in Iraq in recent years, and has not been reported since the early 1980s.

Other species which are known to have bred in the Mesopotamian marshes include Tachybaptus ruficollis, Phalacrocorax pygmaeus, Ardea purpurea, Ardeola ralloides, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ixobrychus minutus, Ciconia ciconia, Platalea leucorodia, Anser anser, Anas querquedula, Porphyrio porphyrio, Gallinula chloropus, Fulica atra, Himantopus himantopus, Recurvirostra avosetta, Glareola pratincola, Charadrius dubius, C. alexandrinus, Vanellus indicus, V. leucurus, Larus genei, Chlidonias hybridus, C. leucopterus, Gelochelidon nilotica, Sterna caspia, S. hirundo and S. albifrons. There are about eight other species, including conspicuous birds such as Podiceps cristatus, Egretta garzetta and Plegadis falcinellus, which might be expected to breed in the marshes, but which have never been proven to do so. On the other hand, old reports of breeding by Glareola nordmanni now seem likely to have been erroneous. The present status of the breeding birds of the Mesopotamian marshes is unknown as there has been almost no new information since the 1950s.

In a recent analysis, Scott and Evans (1993) concluded that in the 1970s, and perhaps even more recently, the marshlands of lower Mesopotamia were of international significance for at least 68 species of waterfowl. The apparent importance of the Mesopotamian marshlands for each of these species, up until the late 1970s, is summarized in Table 3.

Little information is available on the amphibians and reptiles of the Mesopotamian marshes. Maxwell (1957) commented on the extreme abundance of frogs, and concluded that there were several species in the marshes. A toad (Bufo viridis), a tree frog (Hyla arborea) and two frogs (Rana ridibunda and R. esculenta) are listed for Iraq by Mahdi and Georg (1969). Common reptiles in the marshes include the Caspian Terrapin (Clemmys caspia), a soft-shell turtle (Trionyx euphraticus), geckos of the genus Hemidactylus, two species of skinks (Mabuya aurata and M. vittata), and a variety of snakes including the Spotted Sand Boa (Eryx jaculus), Tessellated Water Snake (Natrix tessellata) and Gray's Desert Racer (Coluber ventromaculatus). The Desert Monitor (Varanus griseus) was formerly common in desert areas adjacent to the marshes, but this species has been heavily persecuted and is now rare.

The wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia provide important habitat for a wide range of fish species, many of which are of economic importance, and several of which are endemic. The presence of the Tigris-Euphrates confluence has resulted in a mingling of fauna derived from western or Syrian sources (via the Euphrates) and eastern or Zagrosian sources (via the Tigris and its tributaries). This unusually rich fish fauna has recently been summarized by Banister (1994). Cyprinids are the dominant element in the marshes, and include species such as Acanthobrama marmid, Barbus canis, B. esocinus, B. grypus, B. longiceps, B. luteus, B. subquincunciatus, B. xanthopterus, Capoeta spp., Chondrostoma nasus, C. regium, Cyprinion macrostomum, four species of Garra, Leuciscus cephalus (an endemic subspecies orientalis) and L. lepidus. Particularly noteworthy are Barbus sharpeyi, an endemic species which, unlike others of the genus, spawns only in the marshes in areas of shallow open water less than 75 cm deep, and two blind cave-dwelling species, Caecocypris basimi and Typhlogarra widdowsoni, known only from a sink hole close to the Sheik Hadid shrine near Haditha. Other indigenous freshwater fishes include Glyptothorax cous (Sisoridae), Mystus pelusius (Bagridae), Silurus glanis (Siluridae) and Mastacembelus mastacembelus (Mastacembelidae).

Many marine fish regularly enter the rivers and marshes of Lower Mesopotamia to feed, and form an important part of the commercial fish catches. These include Nematalosa nasus (Clupeidae), Thryssa setirostris, T. purava and T. hamiltoni (Engraulidae), Arius thalassinus (Ariidae), Plotosus lineatus (Plotosidae), Rhynchorhamphus sp. (Hemirhamphidae), Strongylura strongylura (Belondidae), Acanthopagrus berda and A. latus (Spasidae), Aryiosomus amoyensis and Otolithes ruber (Sciaenidae), Scatophagus argus, Liza spp. and Mugil cephalus (Scatophagidae), Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Polynemidae), Acentrogbius dayi, Scartelaos tenuis, Periophthalmus waltoni and P. weberi (Gobiidae), and Cynoglossus arel and C. lingua (Cynoglossidae). The Bull Shark Carcharinus leucas (Carcharinidae) commonly enters fresh water, and has been recorded as far upstream as Baghdad.

About 12 species of fish have been deliberately introduced into the wetlands of Mesopotamia, including five species of Cyprinidae (Acanthalburnus microlepis, Carassius auratus, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinus carpio and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), Ictalurus nebulosus (Ictaluridae), Esox lucius (Esocidae), Gambusia affinis/holbrooki (Poecilidae), Micropterus salmoides (Centrarchidae), Stizostedion lucioperca (Percidae) and Oreochromis niloticus (Cichlidae). Heteropneustes fossilis (Heteropneustidae) seems to have been a natural colonist in recent times; it appeared in the marshes for the first time in 1960 (Khalaf, 1962), and subsequently spread throughout the system.

The wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia are an important nursery for the commercially important penaeid shrimp Metapenaeus affinis which spawns in the Gulf and grows to maturity in the wetlands (Salman et al., 1990). Immigration to the marshes starts from May/June and emigration finishes around January/February, with spawning occurring at sea immediately after emigration. The discharge of the Shatt Al Arab may be an important factor regulating recruitment.

The benthic fauna of the marshes is dominated by chironomid larvae, dragonfly larvae and worms. Stylaria and Tubifex (Oligochaeta) occur in moderate quantities, and univalve and bivalve molluscs are also present (Georg & Savage, 1970a). Al-Dabbagh and Daod (1985) found the following gastropod molluscs in the lower parts of Haur Al Hammar and Haur Al Zikri: Theodoxus jordani, Melanopsis nodosa, Melanoides tuberculata, Viviparus bengalensis, Bulinus truncatus and several species of Lymnea; bivalves included Corbicula fluminea, C. fluminales and Unio sp. Ali (1976) collected eleven species of water beetles of the family Haliplidae in the Shatt Al Arab and marshes of southern Iraq. These included Brychinus elevatus, nine species of Haliplus and an hitherto undescribed species of Peltodytes. This author (Ali, 1978a & 1978b) also lists 55 species of dytiscid water beetle (Dytiscidae) and 15 species of gyrinid beetle (Gyrinidae), mostly collected from the Shatt Al Arab and lakes and marshes of southern Iraq. A globally threatened species of libellulid dragonfly, Brachythemis fuscopalliata, is known only from Iraq, Israel and Turkey. It has been collected in the marshes of Mesopotamia, but no recent information is available on its status there (Groombridge, 1993).

The zooplankton in the marshes is dominated by Cladocera and Rotatoria, with Cyclops forming a smaller proportion (Georg & Savage, 1970a). Al-Saboonchi et al. (1986) found 21 genera of zooplankton belonging to three orders (Ploima, Cladocera and Copepoda) in the Qurna marshes. Maximum growth of zooplankton was found to occur in late spring.

Noteworthy flora: No information.

Scientific research and facilities: Various limnological investigations and studies of aquatic invertebrates have been carried out by researchers from the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad and the Museum of Natural History at the University of Basrah since the 1960s. Researchers from the University of Basrah (College of Science, College of Agriculture and Marine Research Centre) have carried out work on various aspects of the ecology of the marshes. There appears to have been little research on the fishes of Mesopotamia, other than basic inventories of species (e.g. Khalaf, 1962; Mahdi, 1962; Banister, 1980). The mammals, however, have received a considerable amount of attention, both for local biologists from Basrah and Baghdad, and from visiting international expeditions. Thesiger (1954 & 1964) and Maxwell (1957) made numerous references to the mammals and birds which they encountered in the marshes, but gave few specific details. Ticehurst et al. (1921-22) summarized the extensive ornithological investigations and collections made by a number of British military personnel stationed in Mesopotamia during the First World War. Moore and Boswell (1956-57) made extensive ornithological investigations in southern Iraq between 1941 and 1945, while Chapman and McGeoch (1956) made some field observations in southern Iraq between August 1952 and August 1954. Savage (1968) counted wildfowl at several wetlands in Mesopotamia in 1966 and 1967, and reviewed the status of Anatidae and Fulica atra on the basis of the information available at that time. Alnoori (1976) also provided some general information on the waterfowl of Mesopotamia. The International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB) sponsored four mid-winter waterfowl surveys in Iraq in 1967/68, 1972, 1975 and 1979, respectively. These surveys, which were carried out jointly with the Iraq Natural History Museum in Baghdad and the Museum of Natural History in Basrah, visited many of the principal wetlands in lower Mesopotamia, and provided the best information hitherto available on the wintering avifauna of the southern marshlands (Georg & Vielliard, 1968, 1970; Koning & Dijksen, 1973; Carp, 1975a, 1975b; Carp & Scott 1979; Scott & Carp, 1982). Some waterfowl counts were made at a number of localities around Haur Al Hammar by P. Ctyroky in 1979 (Ctyroky, 1987), but no data on waterfowl numbers have become available since 1980.

In 1975, the Museum of Natural History in Basrah established a small field laboratory near the bridge at Shafi, approximately 30 km from Basrah on the road to Amara, and has subsequently used this as a base for research in the wetlands (e.g. Kainady & Al-Joborae, 1976).

Management authority and jurisdiction: No information.

References: Akbar (198?); Al-Dabbagh & Bunni (1981); Al-Dabbagh & Daod (1985); Ali (1976, 1978a, 1978b); Allouse (1953); Alnoori (1976); Al-Robaae (in press); Al-Saboonchi et al. (1982, 1986); Anstey (1989); Banister (1980, 1994); Carp (1975a, 1975b, 1980); Carp & Scott (1979); Chapman & McGeoch (1956); Cheesman (1922); Ctyroky (1987); Cumming (1918); Evans (1994); Georg & Savage (1970a, 1970b); Georg & Vielliard (1968, 1970); Green (1993); Gretton (1991); Groombridge (1993); Hatt (1959); Hinton & Maulood (1980, 1982); ICBP (1992); Johnson (1958); Kainady & Al-Joborae (1976); Kasparek (1992); Khajuria (1980); Khalaf (1962); Koning & Dijksen (1973); Mahdi (1962); Mahdi & Georg (1969); Maltby (1994); Maxwell (1957); Moore & Boswell (1956-57); North (1993); Nurul-Islam (1982); Pankow et al. (1979); Pearce (1993); Salim (1962); Salman et al. (1990); Savage (1968); Scott & Carp (1982); Scott & Evans (1993); Spencer (1982); Thesiger (1954, 1964); Ticehurst et al. (1921-22, 1926); Young (1989); Young & Wheeler (1976).

Reasons for inclusion: 1a, 1c, 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d, 3a & 3c. The vast permanent and seasonal, fresh to brackish wetlands of Lower Mesopotamia formerly comprised at least 1.5 million hectares of almost contiguous wetland habitat, and were thus the largest area of these wetland types not only in the Middle East but also in the whole of Western Eurasia. The wetlands of lower Mesopotamia play a vital role in the maintenance of biodiversity in the Middle East, primarily because of their large size, the richness of their aquatic vegetation and their isolation from other comparable systems. They are home to two endemic species and an endemic subspecies of mammal, two endemic species and two endemic subspecies of bird, and several endemic species and subspecies of fish. They support substantial numbers of at least seven species of mammals and birds currently listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, and are of international importance as a staging and wintering area for at least 68 species of waterfowl and nine species of birds of prey. They are also of great cultural significance, having provided a home for the Ma'dan or Marsh Arabs for at least five thousand years.

Source: See references.

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